+
+### Related Tutorials
+
+- [Python Basics: Start With the Python Interpreter](https://realpython.com/search?q=python+interpreter+repl)
+- [Beginner's Guide: Python Basics Tutorials](https://realpython.com/tutorials/basics/)
+- [Run Python Scripts From the Command Line](https://realpython.com/search?q=run+python+script)
+- [Command-Line Tutorials at Real Python](https://realpython.com/tutorials/command-line/)
+
+
+
+## 📦 Variables & Data Types
+
+### Basic Types
+```pycon
+>>> 42 # int — Whole numbers
+42
+>>> 3.14 # float — Decimal numbers
+3.14
+>>> "Hello" # str — Text/strings
+'Hello'
+>>> True # bool — Boolean values
+True
+>>> None # NoneType — Absence of value
+```
+
+### Variable Assignment
+```python
+name = "Leo" # String
+age = 7 # Integer
+height = 5.6 # Float
+is_cat = True # Boolean
+flaws = None # None type
+```
+
+### String Formatting
+```python
+f_string = f"{name} is {age} years"
+print(f_string)
+# "Leo is 7 years"
+```
+
+### Check Type and Conversion
+```python
+type(age) #
+isinstance(age, int) # True
+
+int("42") # 42
+float("3.14") # 3.14
+str(42) # "42"
+```
+
+
+
+### Related Tutorials
+
+- [Variables in Python: Usage and Best Practices](https://realpython.com/python-variables/)
+- [Python Basics Tutorials (Types & Values)](https://realpython.com/tutorials/basics/)
+- [Python's Assignment Operator: Write Robust Assignments](https://realpython.com/python-assignment-operator/)
+- [The Walrus Operator: Python's Assignment Expressions](https://realpython.com/python-walrus-operator/)
+- [Python f-Strings: Effortless String Formatting](https://realpython.com/python-f-strings/)
+- [Python String Formatting Best Practices](https://realpython.com/string-formatting-in-python/)
+- [Type Checking in Python](https://realpython.com/search?q=type+checking+isinstance)
+
+
+
+## 📝 Strings
+
+### String Basics
+```python
+# Creating strings
+single = 'Hello'
+double = "World"
+multi = """Multiple
+line string"""
+
+# String operations
+greeting = "me" + "ow!"
+repeat = "Meow!" * 3
+length = len("Python")
+```
+
+### String Methods
+```pycon
+>>> "a".upper() # str.upper()
+'A'
+>>> "A".lower() # str.lower()
+'a'
+>>> " a ".strip() # str.strip()
+'a'
+>>> "abc".replace("bc", "ha") # str.replace()
+'aha'
+>>> "a b".split() # str.split()
+['a', 'b']
+>>> "-".join(['a', 'b']) # str.join()
+'a-b'
+```
+
+
+
+
+
+### String Indexing & Slicing
+```python
+text = "Python"
+text[0] # 'P' (first)
+text[-1] # 'n' (last)
+text[1:4] # 'yth' (slice)
+text[:3] # 'Pyt' (from start)
+text[3:] # 'hon' (to end)
+text[::2] # 'Pto' (every 2nd)
+text[::-1] # 'nohtyP' (reverse)
+```
+
+
+
+### Related Tutorials
+
+- [Strings and Character Data in Python](https://realpython.com/python-strings/)
+- [String Tutorials on Real Python](https://realpython.com/tutorials/strings/)
+- [Essential String Methods in Python](https://realpython.com/search?q=python+string+methods)
+- [Python Slice Notation Explained](https://realpython.com/search?q=python+slice+notation)
+
+
+
+## 🔢 Numbers & Math
+
+### Arithmetic Operators
+```pycon
+>>> 10 + 3 # Addition
+13
+>>> 10 - 3 # Subtraction
+7
+>>> 10 * 3 # Multiplication
+30
+>>> 10 / 3 # Division (float)
+3.3333333333333335
+>>> 10 // 3 # Floor division
+3
+>>> 10 % 3 # Modulo
+1
+>>> 2 ** 3 # Exponentiation
+8
+```
+
+### Useful Functions
+```python
+abs(-5) # 5
+round(3.7) # 4
+round(3.14159, 2) # 3.14
+min(1, 2, 3) # 1
+max(1, 2, 3) # 3
+sum([1, 2, 3]) # 6
+```
+
+### Type conversion
+```python
+int("42") # 42
+float("3.14") # 3.14
+str(42) # "42"
+```
+
+
+
+### Related Tutorials
+
+- [Arithmetic Operators in Python](https://realpython.com/search?q=python+operators)
+- [Math and Numerical Computing Tutorials](https://realpython.com/search?q=math+module+python)
+- [Python's Built-in Functions](https://realpython.com/search?q=built-in+functions)
+- [Converting Types in Python](https://realpython.com/search?q=type+conversion+python)
+
+
+
+## 📊 Collections
+
+### Creating Lists
+```python
+nums = [5]
+mixed = [1, "two", 3.0, True]
+empty = []
+```
+
+### List Methods
+```pycon
+>>> nums = [5] # start list
+>>> nums.append("x") # add to end
+>>> nums
+[5, 'x']
+>>> nums.insert(0, "y") # insert at index 0
+>>> nums
+['y', 5, 'x']
+>>> nums.extend(["z", 5]) # extend with iterable
+>>> nums
+['y', 5, 'x', 'z', 5]
+>>> nums.remove("x") # remove first "x"
+>>> nums
+['y', 5, 'z', 5]
+>>> last = nums.pop() # pop returns last element
+>>> nums
+['y', 5, 'z']
+>>> last # popped value
+5
+```
+
+### List Indexing & Checks
+```python
+fruits = ["banana", "apple", "orange"]
+fruits[0] # "banana"
+fruits[-1] # "orange"
+"apple" in fruits # True
+len(fruits) # 3
+```
+
+### Tuples
+```python
+# Creating Tuples
+>>> point = (3, 4)
+>>> single = (1,) # Note the comma!
+>>> empty = ()
+
+# Tuple Unpacking
+>>> point = (3, 4)
+>>> x, y = point # basic unpacking
+>>> x
+3
+>>> y
+4
+>>> first, *rest = (1, 2, 3, 4) # extended unpacking
+>>> first
+1
+>>> rest
+[2, 3, 4]
+```
+
+---
+
+### Sets
+```python
+# Creating Sets
+>>> a = {1, 2, 3}
+>>> b = set([3, 4, 4, 5])
+
+# Set Operations
+>>> a = {1, 2, 3}
+>>> b = {3, 4, 5}
+>>> a | b # Union
+{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
+>>> a & b # Intersection
+{3}
+>>> a - b # Difference
+{1, 2}
+>>> a ^ b # Symmetric difference
+{1, 2, 4, 5}
+```
+
+### Dictionaries
+```python
+# Creating Dictionaries
+>>> pet = {"name": "Leo", "age": 42}
+>>> empty = {}
+
+# Dictionary Operations
+>>> pet["sound"] = "Purr!" # Add key and value
+>>> pet["age"] = 7 # Update value
+>>> age = pet.get("age", 0) # Get with default
+>>> del pet["email"] # Delete key
+>>> pet.pop("age") # Remove & return
+
+# Dictionary Methods
+>>> pet = {"name": "Leo", "age": 7, "sound": "Purr!"}
+>>> pet.keys() # view keys
+dict_keys(['name', 'age', 'sound'])
+>>> pet.values() # view values
+dict_values(['Leo', 7, 'Purr!'])
+>>> pet.items() # key/value pairs
+dict_items([('name', 'Leo'), ('age', 7), ('sound', 'Purr!')])
+```
+
+
+
+### Related Tutorials
+
+- [Lists and Tuples in Python](https://realpython.com/search?q=lists+and+tuples)
+- [Common List Methods in Python](https://realpython.com/search?q=list+methods)
+- [Python Lists: Beyond the Basics](https://realpython.com/search?q=python+lists)
+- [Indexing and Slicing Lists in Python](https://realpython.com/search?q=list+indexing+slicing)
+- [Membership Tests With `in` and `not in`](https://realpython.com/search?q=python+membership+operator)
+- [Python Tuples: When to Use Them](https://realpython.com/search?q=python+tuples)
+- [Unpacking in Python: Beyond the Basics](https://realpython.com/search?q=python+unpacking)
+- [Sets in Python](https://realpython.com/python-sets/)
+- [Set Operations and Use Cases](https://realpython.com/search?q=set+operations+python)
+- [Dictionaries in Python](https://realpython.com/search?q=python+dictionaries)
+- [Mastering Dictionaries in Python](https://realpython.com/search?q=dictionary+methods+python)
+- [Dictionary Views: `keys()`, `values()`, and `items()`](https://realpython.com/search?q=dictionary+views)
+- [Data Structures Tutorials](https://realpython.com/tutorials/data-structures/)
+
+
+
+
+
+## 🔀 Control Flow
+
+### If--Elif--Else
+```python
+score = 85
+
+if score >= 90:
+ grade = "A"
+elif score >= 80:
+ grade = "B"
+elif score >= 70:
+ grade = "C"
+else:
+ grade = "F"
+```
+
+### Comparison & Boolean
+```pycon filename="
+>>> 3 == 3 # Equal
+True
+>>> 3 != 4 # Not equal
+True
+>>> 2 < 5 # Less than
+True
+>>> 2 <= 2 # Less or equal
+True
+>>> (3 > 1) and (2 > 1) # both True
+True
+>>> (3 > 5) or (2 < 4) # either True
+True
+>>> not (3 == 4) # opposite
+True
+```
+
+
+
+### Related Tutorials
+
+- [Conditional Statements in Python](https://realpython.com/search?q=if+elif+else+python)
+- [Comparison, Logical, and Identity Operators](https://realpython.com/search?q=python+operators)
+- [Truthy and Falsy in Python](https://realpython.com/search?q=truthy+falsy+python)
+- [Python Basics Tutorials](https://realpython.com/tutorials/basics/)
+
+
+
+## 🔁 Loops
+
+### Looping
+```python
+# Loop 0--4
+for i in range(5):
+ print(i)
+
+# Loop 1-5
+for i in range(1, 5+1):
+ print(i)
+
+# Loop Over Collection
+fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
+for fruit in fruits:
+ print(fruit)
+```
+
+```python
+# Enumerate With Index
+for i, fruit in enumerate(fruits):
+ print(f"{i}: {fruit}")
+
+# Zip Multiple Lists
+names = ["Lyra", "Adrian"]
+ages = [5, 3]
+for name, age in zip(names, ages):
+ print(f"{name} is {age}")
+```
+
+### Break & Continue in while
+```python
+while True:
+ user_input = input("Enter 'quit' to exit: ")
+ if user_input == "quit":
+ break
+ if user_input == "skip":
+ continue
+ print(user_input)
+```
+
+
+
+### Related Tutorials
+
+- [Python `for` Loops (Definite Iteration)](https://realpython.com/python-for-loop/)
+- [The `range()` Function](https://realpython.com/python-range/)
+- [Effective Use of `range()`](https://realpython.com/python-range/)
+- [Looping Patterns in Python](https://realpython.com/search?q=loop+patterns+python)
+- [Iterating in Python](https://realpython.com/search?q=iterate+over+list+python)
+- [`enumerate()` in Python: Loop With Counters](https://realpython.com/python-enumerate/)
+- [`zip()` in Python: Parallel Iteration](https://realpython.com/python-zip-function/)
+- [Python `while` Loops (Indefinite Iteration)](https://realpython.com/python-while-loop/)
+- [Control Flow: `break`, `continue`, and `pass`](https://realpython.com/search?q=break+continue+pass+python)
+
+
+
+## 🛠️ List Comprehensions
+
+### List Comprehensions
+```python
+# Basic
+squares = [x**2 for x in range(10)]
+
+# With Condition
+evens = [x for x in range(20) if x % 2 == 0]
+
+# Nested
+matrix = [[i*j for j in range(3)] for i in range(3)]
+```
+
+### Other Comprehensions
+```python
+# Dictionary Comprehension
+word_lengths = {word: len(word) for word in ["hello", "world"]}
+
+# Set Comprehension
+unique_lengths = {len(word) for word in ["hi", "hello", "hey"]}
+```
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+### Related Tutorials
+
+- [List Comprehensions in Python](https://realpython.com/search?q=list+comprehensions+python)
+- [Python `for` Loops vs Comprehensions](https://realpython.com/python-for-loop/)
+- [Filter With Comprehensions](https://realpython.com/search?q=conditional+list+comprehension)
+- [Idiomatic Python: Comprehensions](https://realpython.com/search?q=idiomatic+python+comprehensions)
+- [Nested Comprehensions](https://realpython.com/search?q=nested+comprehensions)
+- [Dictionary Comprehensions in Python](https://realpython.com/search?q=dictionary+comprehension)
+- [Set Comprehensions in Python](https://realpython.com/search?q=set+comprehension)
+- [Data Structures Tutorials](https://realpython.com/tutorials/data-structures/)
+
+
+
+## 🔧 Functions
+
+| Function | Example |
+| --------------------- | ----------------------------- |
+| No Parameters | `def greet(): ...` |
+| One Parameter | `def greet(name): ...` |
+| Default Parameter | `def greet(name="Everyone"): ...` |
+
+### Multiple Return Values
+```python
+def divide(a, b):
+ quotient = a // b
+ remainder = a % b
+ return quotient, remainder
+
+q, r = divide(10, 3)
+```
+
+### Lambda Functions
+```python
+square = lambda x: x**2
+numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
+squared = list(map(lambda x: x**2, numbers))
+evens = list(filter(lambda x: x % 2 == 0, numbers))
+```
+
+
+
+### Related Tutorials
+
+- [Defining Your Own Python Functions](https://realpython.com/search?q=define+functions+python)
+- [Functions Tutorial Index](https://realpython.com/tutorials/functions/)
+- [Returning Multiple Values in Python](https://realpython.com/search?q=multiple+return+values+python)
+- [Tuple Unpacking and Assignment](https://realpython.com/search?q=tuple+unpacking)
+- [How to Use Python Lambda Functions](https://realpython.com/python-lambda/)
+- [Functional Tools: `map()` and `filter()`](https://realpython.com/search?q=python+map+filter)
+
+
+
+---
+
+## 📁 File I/O
+
+### File Operations
+```python
+# Read Entire File
+with open("file.txt", mode="r") as file:
+ content = file.read()
+
+# Read File Line by Line
+with open("file.txt", mode="r") as file:
+ for line in file:
+ print(line.strip())
+
+# Write a File
+with open("output.txt", mode="w") as file:
+ file.write("Hello, World!\n")
+
+# Append to a File
+with open("log.txt", mode="a") as file:
+ file.write("New log entry\n")
+```
+
+
+
+### Related Tutorials
+
+- [Reading and Writing Files in Python](https://realpython.com/search?q=reading+and+writing+files+in+python)
+- [The `open()` Function Explained](https://realpython.com/search?q=open+function+python)
+- [Read Text Files Line by Line in Python](https://realpython.com/search?q=read+file+line+by+line+python)
+- [Write to Files in Python](https://realpython.com/search?q=write+to+file+python)
+- [Append to Files With Python](https://realpython.com/search?q=append+to+file+python)
+- [File Modes and Context Managers](https://realpython.com/search?q=file+modes+context+manager+python)
+
+
+
+## ⚠️ Error Handling
+
+### Try/Except/Else/Finally
+```python
+try:
+ result = 10 / 0
+except ZeroDivisionError:
+ print("Cannot divide by zero!")
+except Exception as e:
+ print(f"Error: {e}")
+else:
+ print("No errors occurred")
+finally:
+ print("This always runs")
+```
+
+### Common exceptions
+```python
+# ValueError
+# IndexError
+# KeyError
+# FileNotFoundError
+```
+
+
+
+### Related Tutorials
+
+- [Python Exceptions: An Introduction](https://realpython.com/python-exceptions/)
+- [The `try`/`except`/`else`/`finally` Blocks](https://realpython.com/search?q=try+except+else+finally+python)
+- [Common Python Exceptions and How to Handle Them](https://realpython.com/search?q=common+python+exceptions)
+- [Exception Hierarchy and Best Practices](https://realpython.com/search?q=exception+hierarchy+python)
+
+
+
+## 📦 Working With JSON (and Dates)
+
+### Working With JSON
+```python
+# JSON String to Dict
+import json
+
+data = json.loads('{"name": "Frieda", "age": 8}')
+
+# Dict to JSON String
+data_json = json.dumps({"name": "Frieda", "age": 8})
+
+# Write Dict to JSON File
+data = {"name": "Frieda", "age": 8}
+with open("output.json", mode="w") as f:
+ json.dump(data, f, indent=2)
+
+# Load JSON File as Dict
+with open("output.json", mode="r") as f:
+ data = json.load(f)
+```
+
+### Dates and Times
+```python
+from datetime import datetime, date, timedelta
+
+now = datetime.now()
+today = date.today()
+tomorrow = today + timedelta(days=1)
+
+print(now.strftime("%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S")) # 2025-07-31 20:01:16
+```
+
+
+
+### Related Tutorials
+
+- [Working With JSON Data in Python](https://realpython.com/python-json/)
+- [Serialize and Deserialize JSON](https://realpython.com/search?q=json+loads+dumps+python)
+- [Write JSON to Files in Python](https://realpython.com/search?q=write+json+file+python)
+- [Read JSON From Files in Python](https://realpython.com/search?q=read+json+file+python)
+- [Python Datetime: Working With Dates and Times](https://realpython.com/python-datetime/)
+- [Mastering `strftime` and `strptime`](https://realpython.com/search?q=strftime+strptime+python)
+
+
+
+## 💡 Miscellaneous
+
+### Truthy and Falsy
+```python
+# Falsy Values
+False
+None
+0
+0.0
+""
+[]
+{}
+()
+
+# Truthy List Check
+if my_list:
+ print(my_list)
+```
+
+### Pythonic Constructs
+```python
+# Swap Variables
+a, b = b, a
+
+# Flatten List
+flat = [item for sublist in nested for item in sublist]
+
+# Remove Duplicates, Preserve Order
+unique = list(dict.fromkeys(my_list))
+
+# Count Occurrences
+from collections import Counter
+
+counts = Counter(my_list)
+```
+
+
+
+### Related Tutorials
+
+- [Truth Value Testing in Python](https://realpython.com/search?q=truthy+falsy+python)
+- [Conditional Statements and Truthiness](https://realpython.com/search?q=truthiness+conditions+python)
+- [Idiomatic Python: EAFP and Truthy Checks](https://realpython.com/search?q=eafp+python)
+- [Multiple Assignment and Unpacking](https://realpython.com/search?q=multiple+assignment+python)
+- [Flatten Lists in Python (Comprehensions & More)](https://realpython.com/search?q=flatten+list+python)
+- [Remove Duplicates From Lists in Python](https://realpython.com/search?q=remove+duplicates+list+python)
+- [Counter in Python: Tally Hashable Objects](https://realpython.com/python-counter/)
+- [Pythonic Tips & Tricks](https://realpython.com/search?q=pythonic+tricks)
+
+
+
+## 🌎 Virtual Environments
+
+### Create Virtual Environment
+```console
+$ python -m venv .venv
+```
+
+### Activate Virtual Environment
+```pscon filename="
+PS> .venv\Scripts\activate
+```
+
+### Activate Virtual
+```console filename=" Environment (Linux &"
+$ source .venv/bin/activate
+```
+
+### Deactivate Virtual
+```console filename="
+(.venv) $ deactivate
+```
+
+
+
+### Related Tutorials
+
+- [Python Virtual Environments: A Primer](https://realpython.com/python-virtual-environments-a-primer/)
+- [Manage Multiple Python Environments](https://realpython.com/search?q=virtual+environments+python)
+- [Activate and Use Virtual Environments](https://realpython.com/search?q=activate+venv)
+- [Virtual Environment Management Tips](https://realpython.com/search?q=deactivate+venv)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+## 📦 Packages
+
+### Install Packages
+```console
+$ python -m pip install requests
+```
+
+### Save Requirements & Install
+```console filename=" from
+$ python -m pip freeze > requirements.txt
+$ python -m pip install -r requirements.txt
+```
+
+
+
+### Related Tutorials
+
+- [What Is `pip`?](https://realpython.com/search?q=what+is+pip)
+- [Installing Python Packages](https://realpython.com/search?q=install+packages+pip)
+- [Requirements Files in Python Projects](https://realpython.com/search?q=requirements.txt+python)
+- [Pinning and Reproducible Environments](https://realpython.com/search?q=pip+freeze)
+- [Install From a Requirements File](https://realpython.com/search?q=install+from+requirements.txt)
+- [Packaging & Distribution Tutorials](https://realpython.com/tutorials/packaging/)
+
+
+
+## 🌐 Links
+
+### Visit Real Python
+
+- Real Python Search: [realpython.com/search](https://realpython.com/search)
+- The Real Python Podcast: [realpython.com/podcasts/](https://realpython.com/podcasts/)
+- Common Python Terms: [realpython.com/ref/](https://realpython.com/ref/)
+- Learning Paths: [realpython.com/learning-paths/](https://realpython.com/learning-paths/)
+- Quizzes and Exercises: [realpython.com/quizzes/](https://realpython.com/quizzes/)
+- Code Mentor: [realpython.com/mentor/](https://realpython.com/mentor/)
+
+### Find Real Python on Social Media
+
+- X/Twitter: [x.com/realpython](https://x.com/realpython)
+- Instagram: [instagram.com/realpython](https://instagram.com/realpython)
+- YouTube: [youtube.com/realpython](https://youtube.com/realpython)
+- Facebook: [facebook.com/LearnRealPython](https://facebook.com/LearnRealPython)
+- LinkedIn: [linkedin.com/company/realpython-com](https://linkedin.com/company/realpython-com)
+- Mastodon: [fosstodon.org/@realpython](https://fosstodon.org/@realpython)
+
+## 💬 Contact
+
+[info@realpython.com](mailto:info@realpython.com)
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