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texts["Agriculture"] = "Agriculture in Saudi Arabia (Moisture Index) <p>The desert country of Saudi Arabia highly relies on irrigation farming for growing crops due to its arid and warm climate. The circular shape of the fields is a result of the irrigation system (center-pivot irrigation) which uses water from a huge fossil aquifer. The size of the field ranges from a few hundred meters up to almost one kilometer, limited by the size of the irrigation system. What started more than 40 years ago as a huge success story, ensuring domestic food security for the kingdom, is becoming more and more problematic as the once rich water reserves are depleting. As a result, Saudi Arabia is buying more and more fields abroad to satisfy domestic demand. <a href=\"https://www.nationalgeographic.de/photography/2018/04/wasser-nahrung-energie-die-wuesten-werden-gruen?image=61750\">More...</a></p> Agriculture in the Veneto Region, Italy (Barren Soil) <p><a href=\"https://www.recare-hub.eu/news/45-06-bioforsk\">Veneto agriculture</a> is one of the most productive in Italy, producing mainly cereals, fruits, and wine. Small, hand farmed fields present a contrast to the growing industrialization of the sector, which suffers from soil degradation. The Barren Soil visualization shows that in the middle of spring still a lot of fields lie fallow indicated by the red color.</p> Agriculture in California, USA (NDVI) <p>The <a href=\"https://ca.water.usgs.gov/projects/central-valley/about-central-valley.html\">Central Valley</a>, west of California’s famous Sierra Nevada is home to the states biggest and most important agricultural region. The fields are irrigated on the one hand with water from the two major rivers of the valley (Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers) on the other hand with groundwater. Despite using less than 1% of the nation’s total farmland, the valley produces 25% of U.S. food. In total more than 250 different crops are grown, the most important being cereal grains, hay, cotton, different fruits and vegetable, and nuts.</p> Agriculture in Ethiopia (False Color) <p>The area around Meraro in the Arsi zone which is part of the Ethiopian Highlands plays an important role in food security in Ethiopia. The agriculture in the region (and the country) was for a long time an <a href=\"https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/cluster-farming-improving-farmers-productivity-food-security-arsi-zone\">intensive subsistence farming</a> with 12 million smallholder farming households producing 95% of the country’s agricultural products. To become less dependent on foreign food imports and foster the countries development the agriculture sector was subject to big changes in the past years. <a href=\"http://www.fao.org/ethiopia/fao-in-ethiopia/ethiopia-at-a-glance/en/\">More</a></p> Agriculture in West Bengal, India (False Color 11,8,2) <p>The state of West Bengal where Belda is located is the most important rice and vegetable producer in whole India. Taking only 2.7% of the countries area, it provides food for almost 8% of the population. The state is dominated by small and marginal farms accounting for 96% of all farms. <a href=\"https://wb.gov.in/departments-details.aspx?id=D170907140022669&page=Agriculture\">More</a></p> Agriculture in Vietnam (False Color 11,8,2) <p>Agriculture in the Ca Mau district in the Mekong Delta in Vietnam consist mainly of aquacultures (shrimps, mud crabs), rice, and wood. The whole area is highly drained either by small streams or by channels derived from the streams. Ca Mau district is Vietnam’s largest shrimp producer covering 280.000 ha with shrimp farms which exported in 2019 shrimps worth around 1.2 billion dollars. <a href=\"https://vietnamnews.vn/society/523132/ca-mau-amends-list-of-key-agricultural-products.html\">More</a></p> Agriculture in Poland (Moisture Stress) <p>Located next to the banks of the Warta river this pin shows different moisture stress and field arrangements on the opposite banks of the river. On the northern bank the fields are more regular distributed and show a lower moisture content, on the southern shore the fields are more diverse both in size and alignment and show a higher level of moisture. As the region has in general a quite low annual precipitation (~500 mm/yr) one explanation for the difference in moisture could be the higher prominence of lakes south of the river but also different field management techniques could play a role. Crops grown in the region are mainly cereals, to a smaller extend also rape, sugar beet, and potatoes. <a href=\"http://www.agribenchmark.org/fileadmin/Dateiablage/B-Cash-Crop/Countries/Poland/Poland_crop_production.pdf\">More</a></p> Agriculture along the Nile river (EVI) <p>Due to fertile soil and regular flooding, the Nile river basin has supported agriculture for thousands of years. Close to 90 percent of the land currently used for agriculture is under rainfed farming systems (farming systems, that rely on rainfall). These systems are characterized by subsistence-level production and low yields of crops and livestock. There are about 5.6 million hectares of land under irrigation or equipped with irrigation facilities in the Nile Basin. A large proportion – 97 percent – of the land is located in Egypt and Sudan. Three countries – Egypt, Tanzania, and Uganda – produce large quantities of fish, but the freshwater fisheries resources of the basin are showing signs of being overfished. The top three crops grown in the basin are wheat, fodder, and maize. Livestock farming is also thriving, Ethiopia leading with more than 50 million heads of cattle. <a href=\"http://nileis.nilebasin.org/system/files/Nile%20SoB%20Report%20Chapter%205%20-%20Agriculture.pdf\">Learn more.</a></p> Agriculture in Zambia (Enhanced True Color) <p>The agriculture north-east of the city <a href=\"https://www.investincentralzambia.com/wordpress/mumbwa-district-profile/\">Mumbwa</a> in Zambia’s Central Province, is blessed by good climatic conditions as well as fertile soils. The main crops in the region are maize, cotton, soya beans, and sunflowers. Next to growing vegetables, the region hosts favorable conditions for livestock farming. The main species are cattle, sheep, and goats. In the western part of the pin several round structures can be observed. A result of center-pivot irrigation using groundwater.</p> Agriculture in Kansas, USA (False Color) <p>The soils in Allen County in the state of Kansas are deep and fertile, providing the county and the state good conditions for a strong agriculture economy. Thus it doesn’t surprise that agriculture accounts for more than 40% of the state’s total income. The main crops are wheat, corn, sorghum, and soybeans as well as sunflowers. Livestock raised is mainly cattle and calves. <a href=\"https://www.farmflavor.com/kansas-agriculture/\">More</a></p> Agriculture in Limpopo, South Africa (Enhanced True Color) <p>South African agriculture's biggest challenge is the absence of water since rainfall doesn't come regularly. Hence, <a href=\"http://www.limpopo.riverawarenesskit.org/LIMPOPORAK_COM/EN/MANAGEMENT/WATER_INFRASTRUCTURE/IRRIGATION_INFRASTRUCTURE/SOUTH_AFRICA.HTM\">most agricultural fields are irrigated</a>, helping make Limpopo an important part of the country's agriculture. <a href=\"https://www.globalafricanetwork.com/company-news/a-2020-vision-of-the-agricultural-sector-in-limpopo/\">Learn more</a>.</p> Agriculture in Cambodia (False Color 11,8,2) <p><a href=\"http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/olli_varis_tonlesap_study.pdf\">Tonle Sap Lake</a> and its surrounding is one of the most productive large wetland ecosystems in the whole world. People in the area are highly dependent on the natural resources the ecosystem provides and live mainly from farming and fishery. In total 70% of Cambodians work in agriculture. In the wet season which is mainly influenced by the monsoon, predominantly rice is cultivated. In the dry season also other vegetables and fruits. Due to the poor infrastructure in the region and no industrial management the productivity was traditionally however quite low. In recent years the region experienced rapid development. More and more irrigation structures have been built and the access to the lake's floodplains has been improved leading to more bountiful harvests. <a href=\"https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-02275089/document\">More</a></p> Agriculture in the Burdekin River Delta, Australia (False Color 11,8,2) <p>Burdekin Shire situated in the delta of the Burdekin River is one of Queensland's biggest sugar cane producing shires accounting for <a href=\"https://economy.id.com.au/burdekin/value-of-agriculture\">20% of the state’s total sugar cane production</a>. On shire level sugar cane accounts for more than 75% of the agricultural output (in value terms) making it the most important agricultural plant in the region. On the pin agricultural fields are found on both sides of the Burdekin river and are displayed either in a bright green (vegetated) or in a dark brown (harvested/bare fields).</p> Agriculture in Ontario, Canada (Barren Soil) <p>Agriculture is the dominant land use in southern Ontario even though only a small percentage of the total population is employed in this sector. Still, the whole province has around 50.000 farms (2016) and the average number of farms is increasing over the last years. The main crops cultivated are oilseeds and different grains, on the livestock side it is cattle. Next to the crops mentioned Ontario is the country’s main leader in growing greenhouse vegetables. <a href=\"https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/170510/dq170510a-eng.htm?indid=10441-1&indgeo=6\">More</a></p> Agriculture at the Israel-Jordan border <p>Agriculture in the southern part of the dead sea region is dominated by <a href=\"https://gizmodo.com/salt-ponds-at-the-dead-sea-1560507635\">salt ponds</a> at the southern part of the dead sea and several fields mainly next to both sides of the Jordan Valley Highway. Due to rising global demand for sodium chloride and potassium salts, both found in the dead sea’s salt ponds, the ponds have grown rapidly in number towards the end of the last century. Since then their number stayed at a stable amount of around 50 ponds. The main crop grown on the field is dates but amongst others also tomatoes, eggplants, or olives are being cultivated. <a href=\"https://www.deadsea.com/articles-tips/interesting-facts/desert-wonders-dead-sea-production/\">More</a></p> Rapeseed Flowering in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (True color) <p><a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapeseed\">Oilseed rape</a> is one of the main crops produced in Europe and is mainly used to produce <a href=\"https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/biofuels/biodiesel-rd-other-basics.php\">biodiesel</a>. During the flowering period (late April-early May), the fields are coloured by the distinctive yellow flowers, which can also be observed from space.</p> <p><strong>Timelapse</strong>: View <a href=\"https://sentinelshare.page.link/knVQ\">here</a> in EO Browser.</p> ";
texts["Atmosphere_and_Air_Pollution"] = "High CO concentrations, Ghana <p>Carbon monoxide (CO) is an important atmospheric trace gas for our understanding of tropospheric chemistry. In certain urban areas, it is a major atmospheric pollutant. Main sources of CO are combustion of fossil fuels, biomass burning, and atmospheric oxidation of methane and other hydrocarbons. Whereas fossil fuel combustion is the main source of CO at Northern mid-latitudes, the oxidation of isoprene and biomass burning play an important role in the tropics. TROPOMI on the Sentinel 5 Precursor (S5P) satellite observes the CO global abundance exploiting clear-sky and cloudy-sky Earth radiance measurements in the 2.3 µm spectral range of the shortwave infrared (SWIR) part of the solar spectrum. <a href=\"http://www.tropomi.eu/data-products/carbon-monoxide\">More...</a></p> High NO2 concentrations, India <p>Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and nitrogen oxide (NO) together are usually referred to as nitrogen oxides (NOx = NO + NO2). They are important trace gases in the Earth’s atmosphere, present in both the troposphere and the stratosphere. They enter the atmosphere as a result of anthropogenic activities (notably fossil fuel combustion and biomass burning) and natural processes (such as microbiological processes in soils, wildfires and lightning). During daytime, i.e. in the presence of sunlight, a photochemical cycle involving ozone (O3) converts NO into NO2 (and vice versa) on a timescale of minutes, so that NO2 is a robust measure for concentrations of nitrogen oxides. <a href=\"http://www.tropomi.eu/data-products/nitrogen-dioxide\">More...</a></p> High CH4 concentrations, Turkmenistan <p>Methane is, after carbon dioxide (CO2), the most important contributor to the anthropogenically enhanced greenhouse effect. Roughly three-quarters of methane emissions are anthropogenic and as such it is important to continue the record of satellite based measurements. TROPOMI aims at providing CH4 column concentrations with high sensitivity to the Earth’s surface, good spatiotemporal coverage, and sufficient accuracy to facilitate inverse modeling of sources and sinks. TROPOMI uses absorption information from the Oxygen-A Band (760nm) and the SWIR spectral range to monitor CH4 abundances in the Earth's atmosphere. <a href=\"http://www.tropomi.eu/data-products/methane\">More...</a></p> High SO2 concentrations, Andorra and Marseille <p>Sulphur dioxide enters the Earth’s atmosphere through both natural and anthropogenic processes. It plays a role in chemistry on a local and global scale and its impact ranges from short term pollution to effects on climate. Only about 30% of the emitted SO2 comes from natural sources; the majority is of anthropogenic origin. SO2 emissions adversely affect human health and air quality. SO2 has an effect on climate through radiative forcing, via the formation of sulphate aerosols. Volcanic SO2 emissions can also pose a threat to aviation, along with volcanic ash. S5P/TROPOMI samples the Earth’s surface with a revisit time of one day with unprecedented spatial resolution of 3.5 x 7 km which allows the resolution of fine details including the detection of much smaller SO2 plumes. <a href=\"http://www.tropomi.eu/data-products/sulphur-dioxide\">More...</a></p> High O3 concentrations, Kamchatka <p>Ozone is of crucial importance for the equilibrium of the Earth atmosphere. In the stratosphere, the ozone layer shields the biosphere from dangerous solar ultraviolet radiation. In the troposphere, it acts as an efficient cleansing agent, but at high concentration it also becomes harmful to the health of humans, animals, and vegetation. Ozone is also an important greenhouse-gas contributor to ongoing climate change. Since the discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole in the 1980s and the subsequent Montreal Protocol regulating the production of chlorine-containing ozone-depleting substances, ozone has been routinely monitored from the ground and from space. <a href=\"http://www.tropomi.eu/data-products/total-ozone-column\">More...</a></p> High HCHO concentrations, Ghana <p>Long term satellite observations of tropospheric formaldehyde HCHO are essential to support air quality and chemistry-climate related studies from the regional to the global scale. Formaldehyde is an intermediate gas in almost all oxidation chains of non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC), leading eventually to CO2. Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds (NMVOCs) are, together with NOx, CO and CH4, among the most important precursors of tropospheric O3. The major HCHO source in the remote atmosphere is CH4 oxidation. Over the continents, the oxidation of higher NMVOCs emitted from vegetation, fires, traffic and industrial sources results in important and localized enhancements of the HCHO levels. The seasonal and inter-annual variations of the formaldehyde distribution are principally related to temperature changes and fire events, but also to changes in anthropogenic activities. Its lifetime being of the order of a few hours, HCHO concentrations in the boundary layer can be directly related to the release of short-lived hydrocarbons, which mostly cannot be observed directly from space. <a href=\"http://www.tropomi.eu/data-products/formaldehyde\">More...</a></p> High AER concentrations, Australia <p>The Aerosol Index (AI) is a qualitative index indicating the presence of elevated layers of aerosols in the atmosphere. The main aerosol types that cause signals detected in the AI (because of their significant absorption) are desert dust, biomass burning and volcanic ash plumes. An advantage of the AI is that it can be derived for clear as well as (partly) cloudy ground pixels. <a href=\"https://earth.esa.int/web/sentinel/technical-guides/sentinel-5p/level-2/aerosol-index\">More...</a></p> Cloud Optical Thickness <p>The <a href=\"https://cloudatlas.wmo.int/en/optical-thickness.html\">optical thickness of a cloud</a> is the degree to which the cloud prevents light from passing through it. By measuring how much sunlight gets scattered by clouds back up into space, scientists can better understand how much <a href=\"https://neo.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/view.php?datasetId=MYDAL2_M_CLD_OT\">clouds influence Earth's climate</a>. Optical thickness depends on the clouds <a href=\"http://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Optical_thickness\">physical constitution</a> (crystals, drops, droplets), and form; the overall effect depends on the particles concentration, scatter parameter and phase function, as well as the vertical extent of the cloud. </p> Cloud Base Pressure <p>Cloud Base Pressure represents the <a href=\"https://isccp.giss.nasa.gov/cloudtypes.html\">average pressure at the base of the lowest cloud layer at each location</a>. A <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_base\">cloud base</a> (or the base of the cloud) is the lowest altitude of the visible portion of a cloud. It can be expressed as the pressure level corresponding to this altitude in hectopascals (hPa, equivalent to the millibar).</p> ";
texts["Change_Detection_Through_Time"] = "Agriculture Expansion in Egypt, 1984 (NDVI) <p>Agricultural land in Egypt can be divided into two main categories; Old Lands and New Lands. Old Lands represent highly fertile soils, which are located in the Nile Delta. Due to the River Nile deposits and the highly productive nature of the soil, these areas have been traditionally cultivated with strategic cereal crops, such as rice, wheat and maize, preserving food security for the Egyptian people. During the past four decades, these areas have been encroached by dramatic urban sprawl due to the rapid population growth and economic development. Therefore, there has been a pressing need for the government to find alternative solutions to maintain the sustainability of the national agricultural sector. Consequently, the adopted policies by the government to reclaim new lands in the desert have led to the second category (New Lands). These are barren areas located in the Western and Eastern deserts outside the green zone of the Nile Delta. The New Lands process includes accessibility through constructing roads, houses, installing irrigation and drainage systems and providing reliable sources of water and electricity. Tiba district is one of those newly reclaimed areas located in the western Nile Delta of Egypt with a total area of 125 square km. Learn more <a href=\"https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0472/9/7/137/pdf\">here</a>. </p> Lake Poopó, Brazil 2004 <p>In a typical year, rainfall during the wet season (December through March) recharges the Bolivian lake Poopó directly and via increased inflow from the Desaguadero River. In 2015, the lake dried up. This is not the first time that Poopó has evaporated; the lake last dried up in 1994. In that case, it took several years for water to return, and even longer for ecosystems to recover. Despite its history, in 2016 and 2017, as the waters still haven't returned, many environmentalists believed the waters will not return this time. There are multiple reasons as to why the droughts in the area are getting worse. Sitting high in the Bolivian Andes, the saline lake is particularly vulnerable to fluctuations because it is shallow — typically no more than 3 meters (9 feet) deep. Due to climate change the area has warmed an estimated one degree Celsius over the past century, leading to an increase in the rate of evaporation from the lake. And the lack of rain over the past year has sped the process even further. The government blamed the drought solely on El Nino and climate change, but even though this is one of the causes, it seems the management of the lake is also the problem. Some of the water that is supposed to fill the lake is being diverted for agriculture and mining. Even when water is available, the river is often clogged with sedimentation, due to the runoff from development and mining in the area. What happened to Lake Poopó is not unlike the drying of the vast Aral Sea in Central Asia. In both cases, a closed water system was overdrawn, with more water going out than coming in. However, in summer 2018, the lake filled up again, although the water line is clearly diminished compared to 2004. If all the problems persist, there is legitimate concern, that next time, the lake might stay dry forever. Learn more <a href=\"https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2016/01/160121-lake-poopo-bolivia-dried-out-el-nino-climate-change-water/\">here</a> and <a href=\"https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/87363/bolivias-lake-poopo-disappears\">here</a>.</p> Dubai Urbanization, 2005 <p>Perhaps no place on Earth has had as drastic land cover change over the past ten years as Dubai. The creation of over 300 kilometers of coastline, the rapid expansion of urban land cover, and the intensification of urban development make this one of the most rapidly and visibly changed land covers due to urbanization. The total population of Dubai has grown by 1.000 % over the last 40 years alone. In 1975 the total population was 183,000 inhabitants, which increased in 2015 to about 2 million, making Dubai population one of the fastest growing in the world. The total built up area increased from only 54 square km in 1975 to 977 square km in 2015, raising urbanized land by 1800% in only 40 years. Learn more <a href=\"https://lcluc.umd.edu/hotspot/urbanization-dubai#:~:text=Dubai%20has%20experienced%20tremendous%20recent,in%202015%20(AMEInfo%202005a).\">here</a> and <a href=\"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317564338_The_Boom_Population_and_Urban_Growth_of_Dubai_City\">here</a>.</p> Agriculture in Italy, 1986 (NDVI) <p>Agriculture is one of Italy's key economic sectors, accounting for around 2.1% of GDP. Most farms are small, with the average size being eleven hectares. Italian industries, including the food-processing sector, rely heavily on imports of raw materials. Italy is one of the largest agricultural producers and food processors in the EU. The northern part of Italy produces primarily grains, soybeans, meat, and dairy products, while the south specializes in fruits, vegetables, olive oil, wine, and durum wheat. Even though much of its mountainous terrain is unsuitable for farming, approximately 4% of the population is employed in farming. Veneto agriculture is one of the most productive in Italy, producing mainly cereals, fruits and wine. Small, hand farmed fields present a contrast to the growing industrialization of the sector, which suffers from soil degradation. Learn more <a href=\"https://www.recare-hub.eu/news/45-06-bioforsk\">here</a> and <a href=\"https://www.privacyshield.gov/article?id=Italy-Agricultural-Sector#:~:text=Italy's%20agriculture%20is%20typical%20of,%2C%20wine%2C%20and%20durum%20wheat.\">here</a>.</p> Aral Sea, 2005 <p>In the 1960s, the Soviet Union undertook a major water diversion project on the arid plains of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan. The region’s two major rivers, fed by snowmelt and precipitation in faraway mountains, were used to transform the desert into farms for cotton and other crops. Before the project, the Syr Darya and the Amu Darya rivers flowed down from the mountains, cut northwest through the Kyzylkum Desert, and finally pooled together in the lowest part of the basin. The lake they made, the Aral Sea, was once the fourth largest in the world. Although irrigation made the desert bloom, it devastated the Aral Sea. As the Aral Sea has dried up, fisheries and the communities that depended on them collapsed. The salty dust blew off the lakebed and settled onto fields, degrading the soil. Croplands had to be flushed with larger and larger volumes of river water. The loss of the moderating influence of such a large body of water made winters colder and summers hotter and drier. Additionally, as the Aral water content diminishes, salinization of the lake increases. This creates vertical stratification, where surface salinity is lower than the bottom layer, thus heating up faster. This additionally contributes to water evaporation, creating a positive feedback loop. Learn more <a href=\"http://www.columbia.edu/~tmt2120/environmental%20impacts.htm\">here</a> and <a href=\"https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/world-of-change/AralSea\">here</a>.</p> Disappearing Glaciers of Switzerland, 1987 <p>Glaciers around the world are melting due to climate change. In Switzerland, they have shrunk 10% in the past five years, a rate that has never been seen before in over a century of observations. The summer 2019 heatwave saw glacier melt rates break records, leading to huge losses in ice volume. Scientists took measurements from 20 glaciers in the country and found that about 2% of Switzerland's total glacier volume was lost in the past year. Initial signs for 2019 had been encouraging after glacier snow cover was measured at 20-40% higher than normal in April and May, following a very cold January with lots of precipitation. However the third-hottest summer since records began meant melting accelerated dramatically. Melting was particularly severe in eastern Switzerland and the northern side of the Alps. More than 500 glaciers have completely disappeared in Switzerland since 1850, and 2019 saw the Pizol glacier removed from the country's glacier monitoring network. Most glaciers in Central Europe, Western Canada and the United States will vanish in the second half of this century if current rates of ice loss continue. Learn more <a href=\"https://edition.cnn.com/2019/10/15/europe/switzerland-glacier-melting-scli-intl-scn/index.html\">here</a> and <a href=\"https://www.euronews.com/2019/12/02/before-and-after-see-how-swiss-glaciers-have-shrunk-dramatically-across-150-years\">here</a>.</p> Xingu River, 2005 (False Color) <p>The controversial Belo Monte mega-dam in Pará state has done significant socio-environmental harm to the Xingu River and the indigenous and traditional people living beside it. Project designers appear to have seriously overestimated the Xingu River flow rates and failed to account for fluctuations between wet and dry seasons, while also not accounting for reductions in flow due to deforestation caused by rapidly expanding cattle ranches and soy plantations. Due to escalating climate change and drought that are reducing Xingu River flow, the dam seems almost certain to never fulfill promised economic or energy-producing goals. The dam diverts the Xingu River’s natural flow into a constructed channel, then into a reservoir and to the main electricity-producing Belo Monte dam, largely drying up the river in its original path. Tens of thousands of indigenous and traditional people were forced from their homes, and had to give up their fishing livelihoods. Today, the Belo Monte hydroelectric dam stands as a warning – proof of the damage caused by ill-conceived Amazon mega-projects. Learn more <a href=\"https://news.mongabay.com/2018/02/belo-monte-legacy-harm-from-amazon-dam-didnt-end-with-construction/\">here</a> and <a href=\"https://news.mongabay.com/2020/01/belo-monte-boondoggle-brazils-biggest-costliest-dam-may-be-unviable/\">here</a>.</p> ";
texts["Floods_and_Droughts"] = "Chennai, Before the drought (Moisture Index) <p>Chennai is located on the south-eastern coast of India on a flat coastal plain and is the fourth largest city of the country with over 7 million inhabitants. The city relies heavily on annual monsoon rains to replenish the four water reservoirs that represent the main water resources for the public and extensive automotive industry in the region. Mismanagement of the water resources, combined with 3 years of deficient monsoon rainfall seasons prior to the drought event caused a dramatic depletion of the water reservoirs <a href=\"https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-48672330\">related article</a>. Additionally, the groundwater aquifer was drained beyond its usual recovering capability threshold because residents reverted to groundwater extraction via <a href=\"https://www.indiawaterportal.org/topics/borewells-and-tubewells\">bore wells</a>. The three <em>Sentinel-2 L2A</em>-based Moisture index images from before, while and after the drought, show the desiccation of the Red Hills Reservoir over the heat period in 2019 with a clearly retreating water line. <a href=\"https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/07/india-water-crisis-drought-could-be-helped-better-building-planning/\">Further reading</a></p> Bangladesh, Before the flood (NDWI) <p>Bangladesh is known as one of the most flood-prone countries in the world. Every year <a href=\"https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/monsoon/\">the monsoon</a>, a weather phenomenon caused by changes in wind direction and transportation of moist air, produces heavy rainfall from June through September. In early July 2019, heavy rains and consequently overflowing rivers flooded numerous districts in northern Bangladesh, forcing nearly 200,000 people to flee their homes (<a href=\"http://floodlist.com/asia/bangladesh-monsoon-floods-july-2019\">related article</a>). Additionally, on the night of 17 July 2019, the <a href=\"https://www.preventionweb.net/news/view/66848\">Jamuna River broke through a flood bank</a> and swamped at least 40 villages, aggravating the effects of the monsoon period in the region. A timely identification of flooded areas is essential for an effective flood response. The inundation maps, utilizing the short wave infrared composite (SWIR) and the Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI), show the difference between the usual landscape state and effects of the 2019 Bangladesh floods and facilitate natural disaster management assessment.</p> Madagascar, Before the flood <p>The northwest coast of Madagascar with its characteristic <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betsiboka_River\">Betsiboka River</a> is known as one of the world's fastest changing coastlines. Due to extensive logging of rainforests and mangroves, the Betsiboka Estuary is subject to catastrophic levels of soil erosion (<a href=\"https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/4388/betsiboka-estuary-madagascar\">related article</a>). With every rain event, iron-rich silt sediments from the bare hills are washed into the river system, giving the river it's characteristic red-brown coloring. The large sediment plumes eventually deposit in the ecologically important Bombetoka Bay, which puts the balance of this shelter for Madagascar's endemic fauna at risk. <a href=\"https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/146225/flood-waters-overwhelm-northern-madagascar#:~:text=Torrential%20rains%20from%20several%20tropical,northern%20reaches%20of%20the%20island.&text=Many%20grain%20stores%20and%20cattle,key%20agricultural%20regions%20of%20Madagascar.\">In late January 2020 torrential rains</a> in the northern parts of the island resulted in heavy flooding of the region that in turn had a large impact on local communities and the ecosystem. The two <a href=\"https://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/nli/landsat/landsat-8?qt-science_support_page_related_con=0#qt-science_support_page_related_con\">Landsat 8</a> images depict the extreme difference between the usual state of the river delta, and the described effects of tropical disturbances, with the rainfall-induced sediment flow in the river being really prominent in the satellite imagery.</p> Omaha (Nebraska, USA), Before the flood (SWIR) <p>During a multiple-day stretch centered from March 13 – 23, 2019 (but peaking in severity March 13th – 17th), Nebraska, Iowa and South Dakota endured widespread flooding, ranging in scope from minor/moderate to historical/catastrophic (the likes of which had not been observed in several decades). By far the worst flooding occurred along several primary rivers, including the Loup River system, the Cedar River and the Wood River. Not only was this flooding characterized by high water levels (as is the case with all floods), but in many areas damage was also augmented by an unusually-severe break-up of thick river ice. Taking a back seat to the widespread flooding in terms of impacts/severity, much of the local area also endured a winter storm with high winds and blizzard conditions on the night of the 13th into the morning of the 14th. Overflowing rivers prompted evacuations and dam releases, with Iowa, Nebraska and Wisconsin declaring a state of emergency. Dozens of roads have been closed due to flooding and a bridge has been severely damaged near Niobrara, Knox County, Nebraska.</p> Denmark in summer <p>In July, satellite imagery of Europe should look green. Instead, in July 2018, it looked brown due to a severe drought. This drastic color change has happened over just a couple of months. A prolonged dry spell coupled with soaring, record-breaking temperatures has been a devestating combination for farms from Scandinavia and England in the north to France, the Netherlands, and Germany to the south. In particular, July was incredibly hot for northern Europe. Temperatures in late July exceeded 32°C (90°F) as far north as the Arctic Circle. In Denmark, the spring harvests of vegetables and grains was down 40 to 50%. Another consequence of the severe drought were wildfires. Sweden observed around 50 forest fires during the peak of the heat in mid-July, which, according to the World Meteorological Organization, was the worst outbreak of forecast fires in modern records. The extreme heat in the far north has also led to the warming of lakes and oceans as well. And when waters warm that fast, conditions become favorable for blooms of dangerous algae. The Baltic Sea in particular has seen its most severe algal blooms in decades. Learn more <a href=\"https://www.climate.gov/news-features/event-tracker/hot-dry-summer-has-led-drought-europe-2018\">here</a>.</p> ";
texts["Geology"] = "Grasberg Open Pit, Indonesia (Geology 12,8,2) <p>For years the <a href=\"https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geology/chapter/reading-open-pit-mining/\">Grasberg open pit mine</a> which forms a 1.6 km wide crater at the surface, has been one of the most productive mines in the world, with massive reserves of gold and copper. Situated high in the rugged Sudirman Mountains, Papua Indonesia, its <a href=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/037567429490023X\">mineralization</a> extends from the surface at 4,200 m to the deepest drill penetrations at 2,700 m. The gold and copper bearing ore formed millions of years ago when hot magma intruded into sedimentary rock during the uplift of the local mountains. Since the 1990s, the Grasberg highly sophisticated mining operation has been busily extracting this ore at staggering <a href=\"https://www.mining-technology.com/projects/grasbergopenpit/\">volumes</a> to the tune of 528 billion ounces of copper and 53 million ounces of gold. It transitioned into an <a href=\"https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/projects/grasberg-block-cave-underground-mine/\">underground mine</a> in 2019. Unfortunately, the dumping of millions of tons of waste <a href=\"https://www.tailings.info/basics/tailings.htm\">tailings</a> directly into the nearby <a href=\"https://earthworks.org/stories/ajkwa-estuary/\">Ajkwa river system</a> has not only devasted aquatic life but also caused a steadily growing floodplain of desolation, killing thousands of hectares of verdant forest and mangroves and continues to leave the locals <a href=\"https://theinsiderstories.com/indonesia-will-summon-freeport-on-environmental-damage/\">counting the cost</a>.</p> Meteor Crater, Arizona <p>The Arizona <a href=\"https://www.meteorite.com/meteor-crater/\">Meteor Crater</a> (Barringer Meteorite Crater) formed 50,000 years ago when an asteroid plunged through the Earth’s atmosphere and crashed into what would become central Arizona. The 10 second collision initially formed a crater over 1200 m across and 200 m deep. Subsequent erosion have shaved off parts of the rim and has partially filled the crater, which is now 1600 m wide, 170 m deep gouge, yet the arid climate has done its share to preserve the crater’s original graceful look making it the best-preserved <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_crater#:~:text=An%20impact%20crater%20is%20an,impact%20of%20a%20smaller%20body.\">impact crater</a> on Earth. Very little of the original mass of about 150,000 tons survived the impact, however bits and pieces of the space rock remain scattered throughout the crater, which has for years been a <a href=\"https://meteorcrater.com/\">tourist attraction</a> as well as a wonderful laboratory for scientists and researchers furthering the study of meteorite impacts.</p> Danakil Depression, Ethiopia (Geology 12,8,2) <p>Northern Ethiopia’s <a href=\"https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/84239/curiosities-of-the-danakil-depression\">Danakil Depression</a>, located in the Danakil Desert, is one of the <a href=\"https://www.autoeurope.co.uk/travel-blog/the-worlds-coldest-and-warmest-places/\">hottest</a>, driest and lowest places on earth. Parts of the region are more than 100 m below sea level, forming a cauldron where temperatures average 34 °C and at times climb to 50 °C. In addition, it only receives 100 to 200 mm of rainfall per year. The climate here can only be described as cruel. But against all odds, <a href=\"http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20160614-the-people-and-creatures-living-in-earths-hottest-place\">people</a> do live here and for centuries the locals have survived by mining and selling <a href=\"https://www.fairplanet.org/story/the-hottest-place-on-earth-the-salt-mines-of-danakil-depression/\">salt blocks</a> left behind after evaporation. As if the climate was not enough, the region's energetic geology makes it look like an alien land. There are volcanoes with bubbling lava lakes, multi-coloured hydrothermal fields, and great salt pans, all of which manifest themselves in the vibrant combination of yellows, oranges, and reds that make the landscape look equal parts <a href=\"https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20170803-in-earths-hottest-place-life-has-been-found-in-pure-acid\">neon and deadly</a>. It is thought that somewhere in the future this geological depression caused by the drifting of three tectonic plates will have drifted enough that the Red Sea will spill over, drowning this strange landscape into a new ocean.</p> National Reserve de l'Ancarana, Madagascar (Geology 8,11,12) <p>Containing a unique geological wonder, a spectacularly eroded limestone fortress of sharp ridges, <a href=\"https://www.madacamp.com/Ankarana_National_Park\">Ankarana National Park</a> is situated on a limestone plateau about 108 km south of Antsiranana and covers 18,225 ha. Ankarana has since earned a reputation for its limestone karst pinnacles called <a href=\"https://madagascar-tourisme.com/en/what-to-do/fauna-and-flora/tsingy/\">tsingy</a> which in Malagasy means \"where one cannot walk barefoot\". Observing the tsingy from the air, pilots have been reminded of the deep urban canyons of Manhattan, because the formations have become like rows of high-rise apartment buildings, providing shelter to a different array of species at each level. The topography of the park is varied and in addition to the limestone ‘tsingies’ includes a dense tropical jungle, deciduous forest, canyons and an extensive cave system and network of underground rushing rivers - some of which contain crocodiles. This variety of landscape makes it a popular choice among hikers offering <a href=\"https://www.naturalworldsafaris.com/africa/madagascar/ankarana-national-park\">incredible trails</a>, unique and terrific landscapes and excellent wildlife viewing.</p> Colca Canyon, Peru (False Color) <p>Nestled within the <a href=\"https://www.tripsavvy.com/coast-mountains-and-jungle-geography-of-peru-1619914\">Andes Mountains</a> of Peru along Colca River is the <a href=\"http://www.discover-peru.org/colca-canyon/\">Colca Canyon</a>. This canyon is reportedly the <a href=\"https://colcawonderperu.wordpress.com/about/\">deepest</a> in the world, with an estimated depth of 4,160 m on the North side and 3,600 m on the South side, thought to be twice as deep as the <a href=\"https://www.nps.gov/grca/index.htm\">Grand Canyon</a> in the USA. Unlike most of the Grand Canyon, portions of the Colca Canyon are habitable, and one can see pre-Inca agricultural terraces still being used by local farmers who practice the same lifestyle as their ancestors. The Colca Canyon was <a href=\"https://www.geocaching.com/geocache/GC1HKWF_colca-canyon?guid=f0c26607-22b4-422e-979c-98faed679e7e\">formed</a> by the erosion of volcanic rock caused by the Colca River along the line of a fault on the crust of the earth. Regardless of its depth the Colca Canyon is considered geologically young. Its location near the Valley of the volcanoes, an area of about 40 volcanoes, means that it is a geologically active area. The largest <a href=\"http://web.gps.caltech.edu/~clay/PeruTrip/Talks/PeruVolcanoes-Wicks.pdf\">volcanoes</a> are Sabancayo and Ampato. Unsurprisingly, it’s also home to some of Peru’s most <a href=\"https://www.beautifulworld.com/south-america/peru/colca-canyon/\">captivating scenery</a> as well as one of the best viewing points for South America’s most famous bird - <a href=\"http://www.discover-peru.org/endangered-animals-in-the-andes/\">the condor</a> - which can oft be seen gliding on the thermal winds in search for food high in the rugged peaks of the Andes.</p> Mingsha Singing Sand Dunes, China <p><a href=\"https://www.topchinatravel.com/china-attractions/misha-hill-and-crescent-spring.htm\">Singing Sand Dune</a> (Mingsha Hill) and its twin natural beauty at the foot of the hill, <a href=\"http://www.silkroadtourcn.com/attractions/crescent-lake-and-singing-sand-dunes.html\">Crescent Spring</a>, are 7 km away from downtown <a href=\"https://www.topchinatravel.com/dunhuang/\">Dunhuang</a> and cover a total area of around 200 square km. <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singing_Sand_Dunes_(Dunhuang)\">The dune</a> stretches for 40 km in length and 20 km in width respectively, with the highest point reaching 250 meters and is completely piled up with sand in five colors of red, yellow, green, black and white. There is unsurprisingly a <a href=\"https://www.topchinatravel.com/china-attractions/misha-hill-and-crescent-spring.htm\">legend</a> that narrates the formation of the singing sand dunes, however, the <a href=\"https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/10/121031-singing-sand-dunes-physics-science-whistling/\">real cause</a> is the friction and static created as the wind shifts the sand or as people slide down the steep slopes of the sand dunes from the top. On days when a strong wind blows, the fast shifting sand roars, but when light wind blows, the sand produces a gentle, dulcet sounds akin to music. When sliding on the steep slopes of sand dunes from the top, the drifting sands look like beautiful brocades hung up on the sand dunes, accompanied with beautiful singing sound. The singing sounds like the sound from traditional Chinese music instruments. Hence, the dune gets its name because of the singing sound of the sand. The sands really do sing! Sunrise and sunset are times of great beauty at the edge of the desert. Modest cameras can capture great moments but for the technologically advanced, better equipment will reveal amazing colors!</p> Alluvial Streams, China <p>The <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shule_River\">Shule river</a> drainage basin covers 102,300 square km of land, getting most of its water from the surrounding glaciers. The river carves many alluvial streams and wide <a href=\"https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/alluvial-fan/\">alluvial fans</a> along the way. Alluvial fans are usually created as flowing water interacts with mountains, hills, or the steep walls of canyons. Streams carrying alluvium can be trickles of rainwater, a fast-moving creek, a powerful river, or even runoff from agriculture or industry. As a stream flows down a hill, it picks up sand and other particles, called alluvium. The rushing water carries alluvium to a flat plain, where the stream leaves its channel to spread out. Alluvium is deposited as the stream fans out, creating the familiar triangle-shaped feature, which can be tiny, or enormous.</p> Knockan Crag, Scotland (Geology 8,11,12) <p>Amazing stories stored in the rocks come to life at <a href=\"https://www.nature.scot/sites/default/files/2018-02/The%20Story%20of%20Knockan%20Crag%20National%20Nature%20Reserve.pdf\">Knockan Crag National Nature Reserve</a>, a visitor attraction in the North West Highlands of Scotland, 21 km north of Ullapool near the crofting townships of Knockan and Elphin. As its name suggests, Knockan Crag is a cliff that rises to a height of 300 m above sea level. It is hard not to get excited about rocks and geology at Knockan Crag as it holds the key to an amazing story of colliding continents and <a href=\"https://www.earth.ox.ac.uk/~oesis/nws/loc-knockan.html\">scientific intrigue</a>. Knockan Crag is internationally renowned due to the presence of a geological feature called the \"<a href=\"https://www.geological-digressions.com/tag/knockan-crag/\">Moine Thrust</a>\" first identified here in the 1860s. The Moine Thrust is a major near horizontal geological fault affecting the rocks, whereby the older rocks have been pushed towards, up and over younger rocks. This is the place where <a href=\"https://www.scottishgeology.com/best-places/knockan-crag/\">Moine metamorphic</a> rocks have ended up on top of limestone, and at the Moine Thrust at Knockan Crag you can put your hands on these two very different rocks. <a href=\"http://earthwise.bgs.ac.uk/index.php/Knockan_Crag,_North-west_Highlands_-_an_excursion\">Nature trails</a> ascending up and along the crag lead tourists through striking succession of weathering <a href=\"https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/GeositesKnockan\">Cambrian sediments</a> overlain by the older Moine rocks. Infact, crystalline Moine metamorphic rocks sit on top of a sequence of undisturbed sedimentary rocks which have not been affected by the activity that deformed the overlying rocks. For more than 100 years geologists have used Knockan Crag to help in understanding mountain building and tectonic plates across the world.</p> The Great Blue Hole, Belize (Enhanced True Color) <p>Instead of its roaring waves and scary storms, the Caribbean sea often offers amazing natural wonders below its otherwise uncertain surface. <a href=\"https://www.marineinsight.com/environment/what-is-the-great-blue-hole-of-belize/\">The Great Blue Hole of Belize</a>, located off the coast of Belize, is one of such wonders. Circular in shape with a diameter of 300 m, the water depth in this hole is 125 m, which gives it a deep blue color in contrast with the aquamarine color of the water neighboring it. Researchers say this giant underwater <a href=\"https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/sinkholes?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects\">sinkhole</a> was originally formed during the last glacial period as a limestone cave when the sea levels were lower. As the ocean began to rise due to <a href=\"https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/big-thaw/\">thawing</a> of polar ice caps, the cave system flooded and eventually collapsed, creating a “vertical cave” in the ocean. As such, this swallow hole is popular among divers, who flock to the area to see the geological formations that now lie in the ocean’s depths. <a href=\"https://geographical.co.uk/people/explorers/item/3132-explore-belize-blue-hole\">Researcher divers</a> have found huge <a href=\"https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/stalactite.html\">stalactites and stalagmites</a> below the surface, some even reaching 9 – 12 m in length. They say that the deeper one goes, the water becomes clearer and the formations, more complex. The Great Blue Hole is part of the larger Belize Barrier Reef Reserve System, a World Heritage Site of UNESCO.</p> Grand Canyon National Park, USA <p><a href=\"https://www.nationalparks.org/explore-parks/grand-canyon-national-park\">Founded in 1919</a>, located in Arizona, the <a href=\"https://www.nps.gov/grca/index.htm\">Grand Canyon National Park</a> encompasses 446 km of the Colorado River and adjacent uplands. The park is home to much of the immense Grand Canyon 1.6 km deep, and up to 29 km wide. The Grand Canyon National Park has a rich <a href=\"https://www.usgs.gov/science-support/osqi/yes/national-parks/grand-canyon-geology\">geological</a> history. Though scientists are still unsure of the canyon's exact history, many scientists have pieced together a linier history that includes <a href=\"https://web.uri.edu/geofieldtrip/grand-canyon-national-park/\">the Colorado Plateau</a>, the mighty Colorado River and millions of years of erosion. Long considered one of the seven wonders of the world, tourists flock to marvel at the canyon’s jaw-dropping immensity, and the sheer spectacle of how the Colorado River carved through layer after layer of rock to expose a unique combination of geological color and erosional forms. It is impossible not to notice <a href=\"https://www.mygrandcanyonpark.com/things-to-do/grand-canyon-geology\">distinct layers of rock</a> exposing an ombre of reds, browns, pinks, purples and more.</p> Ha Long Bay, Vietnam (Geology 12,8,2) <p><a href=\"https://www.beautifulworld.com/asia/vietnam/ha-long-bay/\">Ha long Bay</a> is an extraordinary beautiful natural wonder in northern Vietnam’s Quang Ninh Province, near the Chinese border. Covering over 1,500 square km area, it comprises of more than 1,600 rocky and earthen islands, typically in the form of jagged limestone pillars jutting out from the sea, and several caves, floating villages and <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grotto\">grottoes</a>, all of which blend together to produce an exotic and picturesque seascape. The existence of surreal seascape has been often explained by the old age <a href=\"https://www.visithalongbay.com/insight-guides/the-legend-of-halong-bay.html\">dragon legend</a> while scientist have explained that the formations are as a result of 500 million years of strong erosive forces moulding the rocks into fascinating shapes. It is classified as both a <a href=\"https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/672\">World Heritage Site by UNESCO</a>, and as one of the New 7 Wonders of Nature and for many tourists, this place is like something right out of a movie. The fact is that Ha long Bay features a wide range of biodiversity, while the surrealistic scenery has indeed featured in endless movies.</p> Namib Desert, Namibia <p>With its <a href=\"https://www.earthmagazine.org/article/travels-geology-desert-geology-namibia-writer-and-her-father-explore-otherworldly-dunes\">red sand dunes</a> rolling endlessly into the ocean, the <a href=\"https://www.rovos.com/the-namib-desert\">Namib</a> is the oldest desert in the world, existing for at least 55 million years, stretching over 2000 km along Namibia‘s entire Atlantic coast and parts of Angola and South Africa. This extremely <a href=\"https://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at1315\">arid ecoregion</a> features dunes, rocky mountainous areas, gravel plains, perennial river mouth wetlands, coastal pans, lagoons, riparian vegetation and isolated springs resulting in a landscape of exceptional beauty. With rainfall varying from 85 mm in the west to just 2 mm in the east, coastal fog is the primary source of water accounting for a unique environment in which endemic <a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Namib#ref37004\">plants and animals</a> adapt to an ever changing variety of microhabitats and ecological niches. Despite its emptiness, the desert scenery of the Namib has a stark beauty with its striking patterns created by the constantly shifting sand dunes to the dramatic coastline, where shipwrecks shrouded in fog disintegrate slowly into the sand. In addition to being home to the famous solitary <a href=\"https://www.sossusvlei.org/about/\">Sossusvlei Dunes</a>, it is also the site of major mines for tungsten, salt and diamonds.</p> Fjords of Norway (Geology 12,8,2) <p>A <a href=\"https://www.visitflam.com/editorial-content/everything-you-should-know-about-the-fjords-of-norway/?referrer=4464&gclid=Cj0KCQjw6ar4BRDnARIsAITGzlAyf5HypXDOQeJ4RTYb1M0hft5j1lpMTFV0qZcktbYwBuaVyK2iYe0aAvi1EALw_wcB\">fjord</a> is a story of water, ice and mountains. It is a long, deep, narrow body of water that reaches far inland. Fjords are often set in a U-shaped valley with steep walls of rock on either side. While fjords are not just a Norwegian phenomenon and can be found in other mountainous regions, the <a href=\"https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Fjords_of_Norway\">fjords of Norway</a> are particularly famous, spread all over the country and easily accessible as the fjord-dominated landscape runs like a strip all around Norway's coast. They were formed thousands of years ago by retreating glaciers, allowing the sea to flood in the remaining space. In the last <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age\">ice age</a>, glaciers moving very slowly over time carved deep valleys. This is why fjords can be very deep farther inland where the glacial force was strongest, e.g. <a href=\"https://www.visitflam.com/activities/fjord-cruise-sognefjord/\">Sognefjord</a>, is 1308 m deep at its deepest and gets shallow towards the sea. Some features of fjords include <a href=\"https://marinelab.fsu.edu/labs/brooke/research/deep-sea-corals/norwegian-fjords/\">coral reefs</a> and rocky islands called <a href=\"https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/skerry\">skerries</a>. Norway has over 1,700 named fjords which increase the jagged coastline from a modest 3000 km to 30,000 km, islands add another 70,000 km in total creating <a href=\"https://www.google.com/maps/place/Norway/@66.134237,16.2021192,5z/data=!4m5!3m4!1s0x461268458f4de5bf:0xa1b03b9db864d02b!8m2!3d60.472024!4d8.468946\">the most complex coastline</a>. The dramatic scenery has become a magnet to tourists who enjoy kayaking and other boat sports.</p> Richat Structure, Mauretania <p><a href=\"http://geologyscience.com/gallery/eye-of-the-sahara-or-richat-structure/\">Eye of the Sahara</a>, also known as the Richat structure, is a geological dome made of rocks billions of years old and measures 40.2 km across. Once, there was a temperate forest here, with lakes and rivers. The formation processes of this magnificent structure are still a mistery. The most prominent theory believes, that it's the result of the volcanism and erosion. The theory states, that volcanism in the area lifted the layers of sediments and after it died down, the erosion ate away at the structure, making the shape of an eye we see today. As the structure is visible from space, it serves as a landmark for <a href=\"http://www.lovethesepics.com/2011/04/earths-bulls-eye-the-eye-of-africa-landmark-for-astronauts-14-pics/\">astronauts</a>.</p> Senj Archipelago, Croatia <p>The Senj Archipelago includes 3 major islands - <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prvi%C4%87\">Prvić</a>, <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sveti_Grgur\">St. Grgur</a> and <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goli_Otok\">Goli Otok</a>. All three islands have large areas of barren limestone rock surface, with a directly visible structure due to the lack of vegetation. In addition, sun glint patterns on the water surface allow the interpretation of local wind effects, especially near the shore.</p> Sea Stacks of Boreray Island, St. Kilda Archipelago, UK <p>This set of uninhabited islands and rocky peaks really tests the limits of satellite image preprocessing: Due to the extremely steep slopes, some pixels are prone to overcorrection to high brightness. In the south of the island, the refraction of wave arcs can be observed in this image. <a href=\"https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/387/\">Learn more</a>.</p> ";
texts["Monitoring_Earth_from_Space"] = "Sundarbans, Mangrove forest (NDVI) <p><a href=\"https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/mangroves.html\">Mangrove forests</a> have exceptionally high biodiversity and are indispensable in erosion reduction. There are 80 different species of mangrove trees known, growing in low-oxygen soil, where slow moving waters accumulate fine sediments for the roots to grow in. <a href=\"https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/798/\">Sundarbans Mangrove forest</a> covers 140.000 ha of land, making it one of the largest Mangrove forests in the world. It provides livelihood to many people living in the area and is a home to, among others, 250 bird species and an endangered Royal Bengal Tiger. The forest is threatened by seasonal monsoons, cyclones and tidal waves, which cause salinization.</p> Italian Agriculture (Moisture Index) <p><a href=\"https://www.recare-hub.eu/news/45-06-bioforsk\">Veneto agriculture</a> is one of the most productive in Italy, producing mainly cereals, fruits and wine. Small, hand farmed fields present a contrast to the growing industrialization of the sector, which suffers from soil degradation.</p> Heavy Sedimentation Flow of Betsiboka River (False Color) <p>A beautiful Betsiboka river delta is a dramatic example of massive deforestation, that occurs in Madagascar every year. One of the biggest culprits is the slash and burn agriculture, called <a href=\"https://www.madamagazine.com/en/english-tavy-kahlschlag-einer-insel/\">tavy</a>, where the forest is burnt and then farmed in the following months. The other deforestation causes include grazing, logging and production of coal. The forest grows back after being cut down, but until then, the barren soil is vulnerable to erosion by heavy rains, depositing it into rivers, which carry it into the sea, contaminating sea life with deposited iron oxides. As soil formation is a process taking thousands of years, it erodes away each year, until it can no longer support a forest. Due to these processes, Madagascar has already lost <a href=\"https://www.eoi.es/blogs/guidopreti/2014/02/04/deforestation-in-madagascar-a-threat-to-its-biodiversity/\">80 % of its primary forests</a>, causing many indigenous species, such as <a href=\"https://monkeysandmountains.com/lemurs-madagascar/\">lemurs</a>, to be endangered.</p> Richat Structure, Mauretania <p><a href=\"http://geologyscience.com/gallery/eye-of-the-sahara-or-richat-structure/\">Eye of the Sahara</a>, also known as the Richat structure, is a geological dome made of rocks billions of years old and measures 40.2 km across. Once, there was a temperate forest here, with lakes and rivers. The formation processes of this magnificent structure are still a mistery. The most prominent thoeory believes, that it's the result of the volcanism and erosion. The theory states, that volcanism in the area lifted the layers of sediments and after it died down, the erosion ate away at the structure, making the shape of an eye we see today. As the structure is visible from space, it serves as a landmark for <a href=\"http://www.lovethesepics.com/2011/04/earths-bulls-eye-the-eye-of-africa-landmark-for-astronauts-14-pics/\">astronauts</a>.</p> Glacier Grey, Chile <p>A stunning <a href=\"https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/7802/grey-glacier-chile\">glacier Grey</a> located in Chilean Torres Del Paine National Park is 6 km wide and over 30 meters high at the glacier's front. Its various shades of grey and blue, clearly visible even from space, attract many visitors each year. In 2017 a huge (380 m x 350 m) <a href=\"https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/nov/29/large-iceberg-breaks-off-from-grey-glacier-in-southern-chile\">iceberg ruptured</a> from the glacier with the cause unknown. Such events are very rare, with the last one occurring in the early 1990's. Due to its diverse plants and wildlife, glaciers, rivers, lakes and pampas, the park became <a href=\"http://www.ecocamp.travel/fr/Patagonia/Torres-del-Paine-National-Park\">protected as a UNESCO Biosphere reserve</a> in 1978.</p> Venice, Italy <p><a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Venice/Lagoon-and-tides\">Venice</a>, a so called island city with the population of <a href=\"https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-cities/venice-population/\">637,245</a>, remains a major Italian port and is one of the world’s oldest tourist and cultural centres. The lagoon's mud banks, shallows, and channels are a source of income from marine and bird life and from salt pans. The lagoon has served as protection and as a natural sewerage system. The deepening of channels in the 20th century, the overextraction of fresh water from mainland aquifers, the rising of the Adriatic Sea, and the geologic sinking of the Po River basin have lowered the land level, creating a serious flooding problem. On a regular basis, when high tides combine with winds from the south and east, the waters of the lagoon rise and flood the city, making Venice to be known as the <a href=\"https://www.livitaly.com/how-was-venice-built/\">City built on water</a>.</p> Stromboli, Province of Messina, Italy (SWIR) <p><a href=\"https://www.volcanodiscovery.com/stromboli.html\">Stromboli</a> has been active consistently for at least 2000 years, which is unusual among volcanoes. Most of its activity consists of brief and smaller bursts of lava 100-200 meters high into the air. Occasionally, longer periods of eruptions occur, lasting from a few to up to 10 years. The most recent one began in December 2002 and ended in July 2003. Although Stromboli's eruptions are not dangerous for the most part, more violent eruptions that take lives and destroy property, do occur. In <a href=\"https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-48857422\">July 2019</a>, a hiker died during the eruption, several people were injured and many had to flee to the sea. The deadliest <a href=\"http://www.geo.mtu.edu/volcanoes/boris/mirror/mirrored_html/STROMBOLI-1930.html\">eruption in 1930</a> took 6 lives and caused considerable damage.</p> Wildfires in Croatia, july 2017 (SWIR) <p>In summer of 2017, <a href=\"https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/world/croatia-fights-dozens-of-fires-along-adriatic-coast-9144906\">dozens of wildfires erupted</a> along the Adriatic coast. Soaring heat wave temperatures accompanied by a lack of rainfall led to a drought, which resulted in dry, hot forest floor, extremely vulnerable to wildfires. The cause of many wildfires were careless people, while strong winds made the situation worse by making fires spread much faster. The firefighters struggled to contain the fires and keep them from dwellings. Althogether, an astonishing 83.000 hectares of forest burnt down.</p> Sentinel-2 L2A: Highlight Optimized Natural Color (Monitoring Earth from Space) <p><a href=\"https://www.clewbay.net/westport-louisburgh-newport/\">Clew Bay</a> is a natural ocean bay in County Mayo, Ireland. It has a system of small islands, remnants of sediment transport during the last Ice Age. <a href=\"https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Achill_Island\">Achill Island</a> can be seen in the north-west of the image, with some spectacular towering cliffs at the westernmost point.</p> ";
texts["Snow_and_Glaciers"] = "Khatanga Gulf, Russia (Agriculture 11,8,2) <p>The narrow, 220 km wide Khatanga gulf is believed to hold 9.5 billion tons of geological reserves. Despite being one of the least accessible areas in the Russian Arctic, with the nearest 2.500 population town, Khatanga, 350 km away, oil industry development of the area is being considered. <a href=\"https://bit.ly/2JQT31o\">Learn more.</a></p> Bear Glacier, Alaska (Highlight Optimized Natural Color) <p>Bear Glacier, the largest glacier in Kenai Fjords National Park, Alaska, is separated from the ocean by a large <a href=\"http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacial-geology/glacial-landforms/glacial-depositional-landforms/moraine-types/\">terminal moraine</a> forming a <a href=\"https://www.swisseduc.ch/glaciers/glossary/proglacial-lake-en.html\">proglacial lake</a> which attracts numerous sea kayaking enthusiasts. The 20 km long glacier has two remarkable <a href=\"https://www.nps.gov/articles/lateralmedialmoraines.htm\">medial moraines</a>, formed by joining ice streams. These moraines contrast with the brighter ice and appear clearly in Sentinel-2 images. However, the stunning features of the glacier may not be observable for long: <a href=\"https://www.nps.gov/rlc/oceanalaska/upload/Bear-Glacier-RB_FINAL_12-17-19_508-compliant.pdf\">a recent study</a> has shown that Bear Glacier has been dramatically retreating (237 m per year) over the two last decades.</p> Glacier Grey, Chile (Highlight Optimized Natural Color) <p>The stunning <a href=\"https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/7802/grey-glacier-chile\">glacier Grey</a> located in the Chilean Torres Del Paine National Park is 6 km wide and over 30 meters high at the glacier's front. Its various shades of grey and blue, clearly visible even from space, attract many visitors each year. In 2017 a huge (380 m x 350 m) <a href=\"https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/nov/29/large-iceberg-breaks-off-from-grey-glacier-in-southern-chile\">iceberg ruptured</a> from the glacier with the cause unknown. Such events are very rare, with the last one occurring in the early 1990's. Due to its diverse plants and wildlife, glaciers, rivers, lakes and pampas, the park became <a href=\"http://www.ecocamp.travel/fr/Patagonia/Torres-del-Paine-National-Park\">protected as a UNESCO Biosphere reserve</a> in 1978.</p> Erebus Ice Tongue, Antarctica (Enhanced true color) <p>An ice tongue is a natural phenomenon, which occurs when a valley glacier moves very rapidly out into the sea or a lake. <a href=\"https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/4965/erebus-ice-tongue\">The Erebus ice tongue glacier</a> in Antarctica comes down from Mt. Erebus and protrudes off the coast of Ross Island, forming an 11 – 12 km long ice tongue—a long and narrow sheet of ice projecting out from the coastline. When the sea ice in McMurdo Sound thaws in the summer, the ice tongue floats on the water without thawing. It also calves off in places forming icebergs. The Erebus Ice Tongue is only about 10 meters high, so its icebergs are small. When the ice around the tongue melts in the summer, waves of sea water constantly batter the edges of the tongue, carving very elaborate structures in the ice, sometimes producing deep caves at the margins. In winter, the sea freezes once more around these new shapes.</p> Sermeq Kujalleq Glacier, Greenland (Highlight Optimized Natural Color) <p><a href=\"https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/worlds-fastest-glacier-sermeq-kujalleq\">Sermeq Kujalleq</a>, also called Jakobshavn glacier, is known as the world’s fastest glacier. It travels an average of 130 feet in 24 hours and calves more than 45 cubic kilometers of icebergs each year into the Ilulissat Icefjord. Its front is an enormous ice wall—stretching 91 meters at its peak, that constantly explodes. Icebergs break off the glacier accompanied by blasts and roars akin to a rocket launch. When they hit the sea below, the calved icebergs can create huge waves that threaten to swallow people, boats, and buildings. The icebergs from Sermeq Kujalleq have crashed so violently that they have even caused earthquakes. Because the glacier is so large, the breaks seem to occur in <strong>slow motion</strong>.</p> Glaciers of western Greeenland (Enhanced Agriculture 11,8,2) <p>On Greenland’s western shore numerous glaciers enter the Baffin Bay. Several of them find their way to the bay via the Upernavik Icefjord which can be seen on the image. The biggest glacier is the Upernavik glacier from which the fjord’s name was derived. Until 1980 the glacier consisted of one main termini but with its retreat since then it has four main calving termini today. <a href=\"https://blogs.agu.org/fromaglaciersperspective/2017/05/30/upernavik/\">Learn more</a>.</p> Helheim Glacier, Greeenland (Enhanced true color) <p>Located in the southeast of Greenland the Helheim glacier is the fastest flowing glacier on the island’s eastern shore. It has an average width of ~6.5 km and calves into the <a href=\"https://earth.esa.int/web/earth-watching/image-of-the-week/content/-/article/helheim-glacier-greenland\">Sermilik Fjord</a>. In the last two decades the glacier front experienced rapid changes, first retreating ~6.5 km in the earlier 2000s before then partially recovering and gaining back more than ~3 km. <a href=\"https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2017/two-decades-of-changes-in-helheim-glacier\">Learn more</a>.</p> Byrd Glacier, Antarctica (Highlight Optimized Natural Color) <p><a href=\"https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/7544/byrd-glacier-antarctica\">Byrd Glacier</a> is one of the largest fast-flowing glaciers in Antarctica. Ice flows from the East Antarctic plateau into the Ross ice shelf at a rate of ~800 m per year along the centre line of this ~20 km wide and ~100 km long glacier. Distinct longitudinal flow stripes are clearly visible from space where the ice is funnelled between the <a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Transantarctic-Mountains\">Transantarctic Mountains</a>. Similarly to other Antarctic glaciers, Byrd Glacier is <a href=\"https://insideclimatenews.org/news/12112019/antarctica-ice-shelf-melt-atmospheric-river-thwaites-glacier-ocean-sea-level-rise\">vulnerable to warming temperatures</a> that lead to an acceleration of the ice flow, with disastrous effects on sea-level rise.</p> Mountains of New Zealand (Snow Classifier) <p>The mountains around Lake Te Anau (west) and Lake Wakatipu (east) on New Zealand’s South Island are located in the Fiorland National Park. Lake Te Anau is home to the only inland fjords in New Zealand originating from the time when the mountain’s glaciers were still reaching far down the valleys. Today covered with snow in winter these more than 2000 m high peaks are a popular destination for tracking and mountaineering <a href=\"http://www.teanau.net.nz/Mountains\">more</a>. They are also home to an almost extinct bird species called <a href=\"http://www.teanau.net.nz/See-a-takahe\">takahe</a>.</p> Mountain Rivers, New Zealand (False Color) <p>The southern Alps in New Zealand are widely covered with snow in winter. The strong red colors mainly in the southeast corner indicated healthy vegetation. The different colors of the lakes’ origin from different mixtures of minerals brought by the streams from the surrounding mountains.</p> Frozen Lakes on the Tibetan Plateau <p>These frozen lakes are situated on the border between the Chinese counties Shuanghu and Golmud on the Tibetan Plateau. Often fed by glaciers they are likely to become bigger over the next years due to an increase in melt water before finally shrinking as a glacier that feed them will disappear. With an average elevation above 4.500 meters the plateau provides cold enough temperatures for most of the lakes to be frozen or partially covered with ice for most of the year. <a href=\"https://thediplomat.com/2019/03/the-worlds-third-pole-is-melting/\">Learn more</a></p> Winter landscape, Canada <p>A winter landscape of the <a href=\"https://www.cenovus.com/operations/oilsands/christina-lake.html\">Christina Lake Oil Sands Factory</a>. The factory uses specialized technology to drill and pump the oil from 375 meters deep underground. The project is expected to last for more than 30 years and produces 210.000 barrels of oil per day. In winter, the lakes are covered by snow, giving them a surreal white color.</p> Drifting Ice Plates, Arctic Sea <p>Melting ice plates in the Arctic Ocean near Russia, forming interesting patterns as a result of being carried by ocean currents.</p> ";
texts["Urban"] = "Temara, Morocco <p>Few would argue that lions have made a deeper impression on the human imagination than any other animal. The lion species we most associate with the huge royal mane are called Barbary Lions. Barbary Lions are believed to be <a href=\"https://endangeredlist.org/animal/barbary-lion/#:~:text=The%20Barbary%20lions%20are%20considered,although%20it%20was%20never%20proven.\">extinct in nature</a>, with the last lion recorded being shot in 1943. Pictured on our satellite image, however, is a place where they possibly live on. Right in the middle of Temara, a coastal Moroccan city, lies a national park that houses the Rabat Zoo. The enclosure was first built to house the royal Barbary lions, previously kept in the palace. Now a group of lions that exhibits the characteristics of the Barbary lion lives there, believed to be direct descendants that continue the lineage. Learn more <a href=\"https://www.google.com/maps/place/The+Green+Belt/@33.9244461,-6.9215968,13.25z/data=!4m12!1m6!3m5!1s0x0:0x169daf5f0001b466!2sNational+Zoo+Rabat+Morocco!8m2!3d33.955304!4d-6.89435!3m4!1s0xda712ae1b994e15:0xe9a31803dfafc8c0!8m2!3d33.9525448!4d-6.9110012\">here</a>, <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabat_Zoo\">here</a>, <a href=\"https://blogs.kent.ac.uk/barbarylion/2017/09/30/how-to-win-another-10-years-for-the-moroccan-lions/\">here</a> and <a href=\"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266755974_The_North_African_Barbary_lion_and_the_Atlas_Lion_Project\">here</a>.</p> Baltimore, USA 2019 <p>With <a href=\"https://livebaltimore.com/neighborhoods/#:~:text=Baltimore%20City%20includes%20more%20than%20250%20diverse%20neighborhoods!\">more than 250</a> identified districts, <a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Baltimore\">Baltimore</a> has been dubbed a \"city of neighborhoods\". However, not all are created equal. It's a situation by no means unique to <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore\">Baltimore</a> - most cities have their divide between those with lower and those with higher income. Baltimore however stands out for the extent of the gap, its relation to <a href=\"https://wp.nyu.edu/economicinequality/2017/03/29/economic-inequality-in-baltimore-md/\">race</a>, as well as the proximity of the two extremes. The gap here is twice as large as in New York, and one of the largest in the country. To represent the <a href=\"https://wp.nyu.edu/economicinequality/2017/03/29/economic-inequality-in-baltimore-md/\">extent of economic inequality</a>, the typical Baltimore resident in the bottom fifth of earners made $13,588 in 2013, whereas those in top 5 percent made an average of $166,924 that year. In fact, 14 Baltimore neighborhoods have <a href=\"https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2015/04/30/baltimores-poorest-residents-die-20-years-earlier-than-its-richest/\">lower life expectancies than North Korea</a>. One of the reasons for this is Baltimore's abnormaly high crime rate. The city has by far the highest robbery rate in America and there's a murder almost every day. The main perpetrators of crime are drug gangs. On top of the low standard of living, the poor Baltimore youth has a low chance of escaping this environment and high incidence of substance abuse, PTSD and depression.</p> London, England <p>The \"snake\" meandering through London, one of the oldest great cities in the world, is the River Thames. It is so important to the city that it is theorized even its name originates from it. This wonder of nature is now under human control. In the 19th century dumping of raw sewage into the Thames and gas manufactories built alongside the river deteriorated it to a point where the discharge of methane gas in the depths of the river caused the water to bubble, and the toxins wore away at boats' propellers. Chlorine-soaked drapes were hung in the windows of Parliament in an attempt to stave off the smell of the river, but to no avail and four serious cholera outbreaks killed tens of thousands of people between 1832 and 1865. The river was declared biologically dead. Now in 2020, there are 45 locks on the river, each with one or more adjacent barriers. These lock and barrier combinations are used for controlling the flow of water down the river, most notably when there is a risk of flooding. The river recovered to a point where it's bustling with salmon, herons, cormorants, moorhen and even seals. The city also had a huge problem with <a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/London/Climate#ref92695\">air pollution</a>. Heavy industry factories and domestic chimneys all burned coal at the beginning of 20th century, reducing winter sunshine hours by 30%. The issue was resolved by banning the burning of coal with the Clean Air Acts. Learn more <a href=\"http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20151111-how-the-river-thames-was-brought-back-from-the-dead\">here</a>, <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Thames#cite_note-55\">here</a> and <a href=\"https://riverfoundation.org.au/our-programs/riverprize/international-riverprize/\">here</a>.</p> Beijing, China <p><a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Beijing/\">Beijing</a> is one of the oldest inhabited areas in the world; fossils indicate that the <a href=\"https://www.chinahighlights.com/beijing/beijing-facts.htm\">Peking Man</a> (Homo erectus) lived here from 770,000 to 230,000 years before present. It has been the capital of China for hundreds of years and changed its name 16 times in the process. Its rich history makes it impossible to understand China without the knowledge of this city. To protect itself from invasion, Chinese built the longest wall in the world, almost 21,200 km long and 5 – 8 meters high, called the <a href=\"https://www.chinahighlights.com/greatwall/\">Great Wall</a>. It spans over the mighty Yan mountain range (seen on the left side of the pin), which separates the North China Plain on the south from the Mongolian Plain on the north. The rumor that the wall is visible from space is a widely believed myth, called into question in October 2003, after the first Chinese astronaut returned from his journey into Space, and stated that he had not been able to see the Great Wall of China. The European Space Agency then claimed that the Great Wall is visible to the naked eye in an orbit between 160 and 320 km and even published a picture of a part of the “Great Wall” photographed from Space. In this picture the wall looked like a route full of bends that resembled river meanders. One week later, when everything seemed perfectly clear and the myth had been finally reborn, another message from ESA acknowledged that the Great Wall in the picture was actually a river! Looking at what we learned about the human visual system and its limits, it is impossible for humans to see the wall from space with our own eyes. Learn more <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing\">here</a>, <a href=\"https://web.archive.org/web/20080910214156/http://www.journalofoptometry.org/Archive/vol1/pdf/02%20Vol1-n1%20Letter%20to%20the%20Editor.pdf\">here</a>.</p> Amsterdam, Netherlands <p><a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Amsterdam\">Amsterdam's</a> name derives from <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam#:~:text=Found%20within%20the%20province%20of,dam%20in%20the%20river%20Amstel.\">Amstelredamme</a> and indicative of the city's origin around a dam in the river Amstel. Originating as a small fishing village in the late 12th century, Amsterdam became one of the most important ports in the world during the Dutch Golden Age in the 17th century, and became the leading centre for finance and trade. Even today the Port of Amsterdam is the fourth largest port in Europe and still growing. Large ports are usually ecologically disastrous. Amsterdam however, aims to change this by making every effort to keep physical and environmental impact to a minimum and be at the top of Europe's <a href=\"https://www.portofamsterdam.com/en/discover/sustainable-port\">sustainable ports</a> by 2030. A special focus is currently put on plastics recycling. For example, the Plastic Whale organization builds small boats almost entirely out of old plastics, then uses them to gather plastic out of the Amsterdam waterway. Additionally, Amsterdam is <a href=\"https://viatravelers.com/amsterdam-is-famous-for/\">famous for</a> its diversity, the Van Gogh art museum, the Anne Frank House and tulips.</p> Taizhou, China <p>Taizhou is the cradle of the Chinese <a href=\"https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1138052\">private economy</a>. Billions of dollars are invested in infrastructure, such as advanced manufacturing, urban water conservancy, transportation, and the G5 network. Investments in infrastructure were as high as 14 billion dollars in October 2020, followed by a 17 billion dollar investment the previous month. However, Tahzhou economy could face unforeseen difficulties. The city has a long coastline, dotted with numerous islands, and it is built on the Yangtze river delta, making it exceptionally exposed to flooding, increasingly so due to global warming. <a href=\"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328746437_Character_of_extreme_high_tide_level_variations_response_to_coastline_deformation_in_Taizhou_Bay\">Simulations</a> show, that extreme floods, storms and high tide level fluctuations will increase in the river and estuarine section. This could turn out to make the rapid Chinese urban expansion a lot more costly than expected. Learn more <a href=\"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283426813_The_spatial_exposure_of_the_Chinese_infrastructure_system_to_flooding_and_drought_hazards\">here</a> and <a href=\"https://www.zj.gov.cn/art/2012/5/26/art_1568658_26245200.html\">here</a>.</p> Moscow, Russia <p><a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Moscow\">Moscow</a> is named for the river that runs through it, the Moskva. Though Moscow is the capital city of Russia today, it wasn't always so. From 1712 to 1918, St. Petersburg acted as the capital of Russia. Moscow is regularly named one of the most expensive cities in the world. Although you'll find a historic center here, complete with palaces, churches, and monuments, Moscow is a fully modern city with skyscrapers, a network of public transportation, and traffic. The Kremlin, the seat of the government, is the world’s largest medieval fortress. The Moscow Metro dates from the early 1930s and is one of the most-used subway systems in the world. Over 180 Moscow Metro stations, some decorated with artwork and expensive materials, connect the 12 lines that shuttle passengers throughout this huge city. The trains run more regularly than in any other metro in the world, with the interval between trains being <a href=\"https://www.traveltalktours.com/fascinating-facts-moscow/\">just 1.5 minutes</a> at peak times. More than 40 percent of the city's territory consists of parks, gardens and forests. For each Muscovite there is about 16 square meters of greenery. For comparison, for a New Yorker there is about 8.6 and for a Londoner and Parisian 7.5 square meters of greenery. The city has more than 700 public gardens and boulevards and almost 50 parks and forests. The green areas are clearly seen covering large portions of the city, when looking at the NDVI or a Green City visualization. Learn more <a href=\"https://bridgetomoscow.com/curious-fact-moscow-parks\">here</a>, <a href=\"https://www.planete-energies.com/en/medias/close/moscow-city-undergoing-transformation\">here</a> and <a href=\"https://www.tripsavvy.com/moscow-facts-1501850\">here</a>.</p> Toronto, Canada <p><a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Toronto\">Toronto</a>, the most populous city in Canada, is a multicultural city, and the country’s financial and commercial centre. It has a well developed education system, with <a href=\"https://www.narcity.com/ca/on/toronto/lifestyle/50-fun-facts-every-true-torontonian-will-definitely-love\">50 % of the workforce having a university degree</a>. One of the most distinctive features of the geography of Toronto is the Toronto <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto_ravine_system#cite_note-1\">ravine system</a>. It is a network of deep ravines that form a large urban forest that runs throughout much of the city. For the most part designated as parkland, the ravines are largely undeveloped. Toronto's slogan \"<em>The city within a park</em>\" partially stems from the extensive ravine green space with some 10 million trees and 1,500 parks, covering 18 % of the city area. The terrain that the city of Toronto sits on was formed by glaciers after the end of the last ice age about 12,000 years ago. Over the millennia, small rivers and creeks eroded the soil, cutting deep ravines through what is today the Toronto region. Despite the dense population of metropolitan Toronto, many of the ravines have been left close to their natural state, due to the danger of flooding. Every few decades, a massive flooding event occurs. The most recent event was in 1954, when Hurricane Hazel, dropping over 12 cm of rain onto the city in a single day. In the post-war years, several developments had begun to encroach on the ravine lands, and these neighbourhoods were badly damaged by the storm. The whole blocks were washed away and 81 people killed. This disaster led to an almost complete ban on development in the ravines, and a new Region Conservation Authority was created to maintain them as open spaces.</p> Melbourne, Australia <p>Victoria's vibrant capital – <a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Melbourne\">Melbourne</a> – is a wonderful city that is often ranked amongst the world's most liveable. It is home to about 136,000 people and is the core of an extensive metropolitan area with a population of more than 1,000,000, some 38% born overseas. In 1856, Melbourne workers successfully campaigned for the world's first 8-hour work day. All the rest of us are still thankful today! Though Melbourne’s flat site has led to the regular development of a rectangular pattern of streets, the city has many beautiful parks and diverse architecture. It is known for its unpredictable weather, as it's often possible to experience four seasons in one day. Melbourne’s most important industries, in terms of number of employees, are metal processing, including the manufacture of transportation equipment, and engineering. Melbourne is also one of Australia’s leaders in the manufacture of computers and is developing as a centre for biomedicine and biotechnology. Melbourne has a lively sport culture, with hundreds of sports fields, tennis courts, swimming pools, and golf courses for active sports participants. Learn more <a href=\"https://www.experienceoz.com.au/en/melbourne-facts\">here</a>.</p> Tabriz, Iran <p><a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Tabriz\">Tabriz</a>, the fourth largest city of Iran and capital of the East Azerbaijan province, counts almost 1,400,000 inhabitants. The name Tabriz is said to derive from tap-rīz (“causing heat to flow”), from the many thermal springs in the area. Iran is prone to earthquakes as it sits on <a href=\"https://www.rferl.org/a/earthquake-hits-northwest-iran-tabriz/30259208.html\">major fault lines</a> and experiences an average of one earthquake a day. Consequently, Tabriz, which lies about 1,367 metres above sea level, is prone to frequent and deadly earthquakes, which cause serious damages and casualties. The city has been occupied several times throughout history. The modernization of Tabriz has quickened since World War II, with streets widened, buildings erected, and public gardens laid out with fountains and pools. The city’s newer buildings include a railway station and Tabriz University. The city is commercially important, with the principal products including carpets, textiles, cement, agricultural machinery, motorcycles, and household appliances. The city is linked by rail with Tehran and with areas to the north, and it has an airport.</p> Venice, Italy <p><a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Venice/Lagoon-and-tides\">Venice</a>, a so called island city with a population of <a href=\"https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-cities/venice-population/\">637,245</a>, remains a major Italian port and is one of the world’s oldest tourist and cultural centres. The lagoon's mud banks, shallows, and channels with its marine and bird life provide next to salt pans a source of income for the Venetians. The lagoon has served as protection and as a natural sewerage system. The deepening of channels in the 20th century, the overextraction of fresh water from mainland aquifers, the rising of the Adriatic Sea, and the geologic sinking of the Po River basin have lowered the land level, creating a serious flooding problem. On a regular basis, when high tides combine with winds from the south and east, the waters of the lagoon rise and flood the city, making Venice to be known as the <a href=\"https://www.livitaly.com/how-was-venice-built/\">City built on water</a>.</p> Washington D.C., USA <p><a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Washington-DC\">Washington D.C.</a> is the capital city of the United States of America. It is coextensive with the District of Columbia (the city is often referred to as simply D.C.) and is located on the northern shore of the Potomac River. In 1790 the U.S. Congress established a 260-square-km territory to serve as the permanent seat of the federal government. The territory was later named the District of Columbia, within which the city of Washington was built. After the American Civil War (1861 – 65), the city of Washington expanded beyond its originally planned boundaries and became legally indistinguishable from the District of Columbia. Washington, D.C., remains a territory, not a state, and since 1974 it has been governed by a locally elected mayor and city council over which the Congress retains the power of veto. The Washington metropolitan area covers nearly 10,360 square km and encompasses 10 counties. As a result of Washington’s abundance of federal civil service jobs and its status as a major tourist destination, the city’s economy is overwhelmingly dominated by the service sector. Research and development work is another key component of the local economy with most businesses linked to the federal government. Though it’s a bustling city, Washington, D.C. is a home to many <a href=\"https://kids.nationalgeographic.com/explore/states/washington-dc/\">animals</a>, such as the Virginia opossums, groundhogs, brown bats or flying squirrels. Several bird species live here as well, most notably a bald eagle, cardinals, great blue herons, and the official bird, the wood thrush.</p> Lagos, Nigeria <p><a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Lagos-Nigeria\">Lagos</a>, a Nigerian city and a chief port, is dominated by a system of islands, sandbars, and lagoons. The highest elevation in Lagos is only 22 feet above sea level. The port of Lagos serves as the principal outlet for Nigeria’s exports. The Lagos metropolitan area is a major educational and cultural centre. The main business district occupies Lagos Island’s southwestern shore and contains an increasing number of multistory buildings. This is the heart of the city, the centre of commerce, finance, administration, and education. The principal manufacturing industries in Lagos include the production of electronics equipment, automobile assembly, food and beverage processing, metalworks, and the production of paints and soap. The original settlement on the northwestern tip of Lagos Island is now a slum area characterized by narrow streets, poor housing, and overcrowding.</p> Kinshasa, DR Kongo <p><a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Kinshasa/Cultural-life\">Kinshasa</a>, formerly known as Léopoldville, is the largest city and the capital of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The city’s inhabitants are popularly known as Kinois. Kinshasa is the most important consumer centre of the republic and the core of its industrial and commercial activity. The city serves as the headquarters of major public corporations and of privately owned industrial and commercial companies. Among Kinshasa’s main industries are food processing and those producing consumer goods, generally for domestic markets. The rapid expansion of Kinshasa’s population has created serious problems in supplying the city with food; there is a constant threat of shortages, posing an implicit political problem. The poor forage at a considerable distance for firewood and keep gardens where they can find good soil. The demands of this vast urban population have caused extensive erosion in the surrounding countryside, as the soil is exhausted from overcultivation and trees cut for charcoal have not been replanted. The administration is unable to provide adequate services such as running water, electricity, and sanitation throughout the city. Medical facilities, like other city services, are overwhelmed by population growth; the same problem is present for the primary and secondary education system.</p> Mogadishu, Somalia <p>Mogadishu, the capital city of Somalia, is located in the horn of Africa and bordering the Red Sea. The major religion is Sunni Muslim and the official language is Somali, although Arabic, Italian, and English are all spoken there. Mogadishu’s population was estimated <a href=\"https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/cities/somalia\">2.5 million</a> people in 2020. Founded by the Arabs in the 10th century, Mogadishu became the capital and chief port of Somalia. Initially after their arrival, families of Arab and Persian descent ruled Somalia and fueled the widespread conversion to Islam. By the 13th century, Mogadishu became prosperous by trading gold, livestock, slaves, leather, and ivory. Despite the growing affluence in the city of Mogadishu, the country as a whole suffered from political instability under the dictatorship of President Mohamed Siad Barre who ruled the nation from 1969 to 1991. The unstable political environment worsened in 1992 when an extreme famine hit Somalia. The United Nations intervened to ensure the equal distribution of aid and prevent the new government from abusing its power. The mission was unsuccessful and the UN left the port city in 2002 after one of its officials was kidnapped. By 2008 officials estimated that nearly half of the city’s residents, over one million people, had fled to the countryside. Since 2008 nearly 3,000 African Union peacekeeping troops have patrolled the city to try to maintain order and provide medical aid. Although Mogadishu was once a powerful and commercially important port city, more than two decades of violence and government instability have caused what many experts fear may be irreparable damage to its inhabitants, its economy, and its infrastructure. Learn more <a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Somalia/Transportation#ref37733\">here</a> and <a href=\"https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/mogadishu-somalia-ca-950/\">here.</a></p> Khayelitsha slums, Cape Town <p>The <a href=\"https://mirror.unhabitat.org/documents/media_centre/sowcr2006/SOWCR%205.pdf\">United Nations</a> defines slums as urban areas lacking clean water, sanitation facilities, adequate living space, durable houses and/or housing security. <a href=\"https://borgenproject.org/life-inside-worlds-largest-slums/#:~:text=Though%20Khayelitsha%20was%20originally%20an,under%20the%20age%20of%2019.\">Khayelitsha slums</a> are one of the <a href=\"https://www.habitatforhumanity.org.uk/blog/2017/12/the-worlds-largest-slums-dharavi-kibera-khayelitsha-neza/\">largest slums in the world</a>, with a population of 400,000 to 1,2 million people. It was set up in the 1980s as a ghetto for workers who migrated to <a href=\"https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2014/apr/30/cape-town-apartheid-ended-still-paradise-few-south-africa\">Cape Town</a> in search of jobs during the apartheid era, though it grew rapidly after the oppressive system was abolished in 1994. It is a place of extreme poverty. The unemployment rate for individuals living in Khayelitsha is 73 percent with 70 percent of its individuals living in shacks made of timber and sheet metal. The severe poverty combined with a lack of community infrastructure has led the community to vast crime rates, gangs, violence and drug use. There is no proper sewerage in place, so many people do not have toilets, contributing to severe sanitation problems. Lack of clean water and food is another hardship. An estimated one in three people has to walk 200 meters or more to access clean water with around 65 percent of residents with <a href=\"https://news.yahoo.com/no-space-water-cape-town-slum-little-face-152054693.html?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAAHXMUsFRzTNsvJhdNbzrnCxf_iMYLN7rtsjTgNfcVvzxksgXBgxnfNI28HyKSFfZ_6o9SGgdOkV5jjnRTn3BfK-7qCm0kVtO5crcX_wIktTpuGay596Mr2PVH4Hncm76Mt2OMiLzDTTpInknPkbnzrY2_GTr_Q1tgCM_Yso0XPiu\">no electricity or running water</a>. A limited food supply is sold between shacks, being constantly exposed to the sun. Khayelitsha has a high population density and a low amount of resources to support the growing population, leading to overcrowding. Several NGOs are trying their best to alleviate various hardships. They believe that with the combined efforts of determined people and organizations, one of the world’s largest and fastest growing slums can finally improve its situation.</p> Tokyo, Japan <p><a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Tokyo\">Tokyo</a>, the capital city of Japan, is considered to be the <a href=\"https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-cities\">largest city in the world</a>, with a total of more than 38 million residents. The site of Tokyo has been inhabited since ancient times; the small fishing village of Edo existed there for centuries. The city is built on low, alluvial plains and adjacent upland hills, near the boundary of three plates, making it an extremely active region for <a href=\"https://www.ft.com/content/3efc4da8-c3bd-11e2-aa5b-00144feab7de\">earthquakes</a>. The last strong seismic tremor to hit Tokyo, the 1923 Great Kanto earthquake, killed 143,000 people and destroyed 695,000 homes and it is estimated that similarly strong earthquake could happen again in the following years. That is why Tokyo skyscrapers are built using elastic steel and shock absorbers, making them able to move and sway, instead of collapse, when the ground shakes. Early summer and early autumn are rainy seasons; two or three typhoons usually occur during September and October. Many domestic and international financial institutions and other businesses are headquartered in central Tokyo. The city is an important wholesale centre, where goods from all parts of the country and the world are distributed. Light and labour-intensive industries predominate in the city, notably printing and publishing and the manufacture of electronic equipment. Tokyo is Japan’s major cultural centre, with several art and science museums. Tokyo station is the central railroad terminal for all of Japan, including the internationally famous high-speed bullet trains from western Japan. The city has numerous outlying islands, which extend as far as 1,850 km from central Tokyo and was considered the highest cost-of-living city in the world for 14 years until 2006. Learn <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo#Economy\">more</a>.</p> Altai, Mongolia <p>With a population of about 15,800 Altai is one of the smallest provincial capitals in one of the least densely populated provinces, Govi-Altai. Govi-Altai is situated in the western part of Mongolia and is the countries second largest province (aimag). The majestic peaks of the Mongol Altai mountains stretch from North to South through its territory. The province was named after the Gobi Desert and the Mongol Altai Nuruu range, which virtually bisects the province to create a stark, rocky landscape. Most of the population live in the north-east part, where melting snow from the Khangai Nuur feeds small rivers, creating vital water supplies. Gobi-Altai is one of the least suitable areas for raising livestock, and therefore one of the most hostile to human habitation. The average height is 1940 m high above sea level. The climate is capricious with winter temperatures as low as -30°C and summer temperatures up to 34°C. Despite the harsh conditions, the province is home to rare large mammals, such as Ibex, snow leopards, the Govi Bear, wild Bactrian camel, Argali sheep, black-tailed gazelle, and other wild cats. The province's territory contains many national parks, strictly protected areas, nature reserves and national monuments, protecting several animal species and providing a home to rare wildlife sanctuary. Learn more <a href=\"https://www.toursmongolia.com/provinces/gobi-altai\">here</a>, <a href=\"https://mongolia-guide.com/destination/gobi-altai\">here</a> and <a href=\"https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Altai_(Mongolia)\">here</a>.</p> Nuuk, Greenland <p>Located only 150 miles south of the Arctic Circle, at the mouth of a group of fjords, Nuuk is the capital, main port and the largest city of Greenland. It contains almost a third of Greenland's population, counting 18,326 people. Winters in the city are freezing, with the average January <a href=\"https://www.eldoradoweather.com/climate/greenland/Nuuk.html\">temperature</a> around -4°C and getting as low as -10°C. Even summer is relatively cold, with the hottest August temperatures not more than 10°C. Nuuk is the seat of government and is the country's largest cultural and economic centre, containing the Supreme court, foreign consulates, a university, vocational training schools, a hospital, and radio and television stations. Important economic activities include government administrative work, education, health care, and other services, as well as hunting, fishing, fish and shrimp processing, and shipbuilding and repair. The city attracts <a href=\"https://www.tripadvisor.com/Tourism-g295112-Nuuk_Sermersooq_Municipality-Vacations.html\">tourists</a> as it's the perfect starting point for a whale-watching trip, a dog-sled ride, or glacier exploration. Daily flights bring visitors to a land that has been inhabited for over 4,000 years. The National Museum and Archives exhibits collections of rare Norse and Inuit archaeological artifacts, while the Katuaq Cultural Centre provides a showcase for contemporary Greenlandic art and music. Learn more <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuuk#Tourism\">here</a> and <a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Nuuk\">here</a>.</p> Ptuj, Slovenia <p>Ptuj is the oldest town in Slovenia, dating back to the Stone Age. Due to its strategic location along a prehistoric trade route between the Baltic Sea and the Adriatic, it became an important center and legion-camp of the Ancient Romans. This is also how it got its name - the romans named it Poetovium. The town is dominated by the <a href=\"https://www.culture.si/en/Ptuj_Castle\">castle</a>, standing proudly on the hill above Ptuj. Its strategic position at the bank of Drava river allowed the castle hill to be inhabited since the early days of Ptuj and Ptuj kept an important role over centuries. The current look of the building dates back to the 18th century and is home to a museum that hosts the biggest collection of music instruments in the whole country. Ptuj is the center place of a carnival in spring, an ancient rite of spring and fertility, called Kurentovanje. <a href=\"http://www.kurentovanje.net/en/the-kurent/\">Kurent</a> is a figure dressed in sheep skin wearing a mask, a long red tongue, cow bells, and multi-colored ribbons on the head. Organized in groups, Kurents go through towns, from house to house, making noise with bells to symbolically scare off evil spirits and the winter. Kurent has been recognized by <a href=\"https://www.slovenia.info/en/places-to-go/regions/thermal-pannonian-slovenia/ptuj\">UNESCO</a> for its unique cultural heritage. Each year, more than <a href=\"https://govorise.metropolitan.si/dogodki/pustovanja-2019-po-sloveniji-od-povorke-v-ptuju-do-priljubljenega-cerknega/\">100,000</a> people gather for the largest carnival in the country. Learn more <a href=\"https://www.mywanderlust.pl/visit-ptuj-slovenia/\">here</a> and <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptuj\">here</a>.</p> Seoul, South Korea <p><a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Seoul\">Seoul</a>, the capital of South Korea, is the cultural, economic, and political centre of the country. The area of the city has been inhabited by humans for thousands of years. The site was originally used for military purposes, with the remains of the fortifications now a popular attraction. The service sector employs the largest proportion of the city’s workforce, with information technology and electronics industries highly developed. One of the biggest challenges of the city is overpopulation. With more than 10 million people living within 234 square miles. Seoul is one of the most populous cities in the world and one of the <a href=\"https://ourworld.unu.edu/en/is-seoul-the-next-great-sharing-city\">most connected</a>. It has a highly-developed tech infrastructure, widespread public wifi, and 60 percent of South Koreans own a smartphone. To battle urban sprawl and overpopulation issues, Seoul built many residential buildings, an extensive subway system and set up a greenbelt around a large part of the city’s perimeter, which prohibits further extension of the built-up area. As a result, urban sprawl has extended to places outside the greenbelt, creating new residential areas in suburbs and satellite cities.</p> Bagdhad, Iraq <p><a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Baghdad/History\">Baghdad</a>, the capital of the Iraq, is situated in the heart of the ancient Mesopotamia and holds most of Iraq’s manufacturing, finance, and commerce. The vast majority of the population, counting more than 7,5 million people, is Muslim and Arab. The government is the city’s principal employer, with hundreds of thousands of citizens working in the civil service, in government-run educational institutions, and in government-owned industrial and commercial enterprises. Bagdhad has long been an active cultural centre for the Arab world, producing prominent sculptors, painters, poets, and writers. Between the 8th and 9th centuries, it flourished into an <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad\">unrivaled intellectual center</a> of science, medicine, philosophy, and education and had the largest selection of books in the world. It was likely the largest city in the world containing over one million inhabitants at its peak. It began to decline in the \"Iranian Intermezzo\" of the 9th to 11th centuries, and was destroyed in the Mongolian invasion in 1258. Baghdad regained prominence only when it became the capital of Iraq in 1920; over the next half century, the city took on all the characteristics of a modern metropolis. The city was heavily damaged by aerial bombardment during the Persian Gulf War and again by air and ground operations during the Iraq War. During the interwar period the city’s services and infrastructure deteriorated badly because of inattention and economic sanctions. In recent years, it found itself the victim of several attacks, especially from al-Qaeda and its successor, the Islamic State.</p> Tel Aviv, Israel <p><a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Tel-Aviv-Yafo/History\">Tel Aviv</a> is a major city and the economic centre of Israel. The city was founded in 1909 as a Jewish garden suburb of the ancient port of Jaffa, with which it was later joined. By the beginning of the 21st century, the modern city of Tel Aviv had developed into a major economic and cultural centre. Tel Aviv forms the core of Israel’s largest metropolitan area, representing more than two-fifths of Israel’s population. Tel Aviv is depicted as the city “that never stops”, a thriving, vibrant, modern, dynamic, and multicultural city, one generally characterized as tolerant, secular, and liberal, while also being a materialistic and a hedonistic city of the present. Jews represent the vast majority of Tel Aviv’s population. Tel Aviv forms the core of Israel’s postindustrial, globally oriented economy with almost one-sixth of all jobs in Israel located in the city. Nearly all banks and insurance companies operating in the country are headquartered in the city, and Israel’s only stock exchange is located there as well. As Israel’s most prominent centre of culture and entertainment, Tel Aviv is home to most of the country’s theatres and a New Israeli Opera. More than one-third of all performances and exhibitions in Israel are held in Tel Aviv, and the city hosts three of Israel’s eight largest museums.</p> Giza, Egypt <p>Giza, located within the <a href=\"http://www.newgeography.com/content/002901-the-evolving-urban-form-cairo\">Greater Cairo metropolitan area</a>, is the third-largest city in Egypt with 9 million inhabitants. The city is famous for its archaeological sites, in particular the <a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Great-Sphinx\">Great Sphinx</a> and the <a href=\"https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/archaeology/giza-pyramids/\">Giza Pyramid Complex</a>, which includes the Great Pyramid, the only of the <a href=\"https://www.ancient.eu/The_Seven_Wonders/\">Seven Wonders of the Ancient World</a> still standing. The Great Pyramids are easily identifiable in satellite images thanks to their shadows cast to the North West contrasting with the brightly illuminated South sides. The distinct delineation between the arid <a href=\"https://www.livescience.com/23140-sahara-desert.html\">Sahara desert</a> to the West and the city of Cairo, with its green parks and golf courses, to the East is striking. Today, Giza is a rapidly growing region of Cairo, and the soaring population is leading to new construction of housing and roads encroaching on the desert hills.</p> Cadiz, Spain <p>Cadiz is a beautiful Spanish city with colorful architecture and plazas. It stands on a small, 12.10 square km big peninsula stretching out into a bay, and is almost entirely surrounded by the sea. Consequently, there is a shortage of land to be developed. The older quarters of Cadiz are full of buildings that, because of their age and historical significance, are not eligible for urban renewal. This is why in recent years, the city's population has steadily declined; between 1995 and 2006, it lost more than 14,000 residents, a decrease of 9 %. In the early 19th century it became the bastion of Spain's anti-monarchist, liberal movement, as a result of which the country's first Constitution was declared here in 1812. The industrial development is rather limited, but important naval and various other factories exist on the mainland, and there are tuna fisheries off the coast. The city is primarily a commercial port, exporting wine, salt, olives, figs, cork, and salted fish and importing coal, iron and machinery, timber, cereals, coffee, and other food. Learn more <a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Cadiz-Spain\">here</a>, <a href=\"https://www.andalucia.com/cities/cadiz.htm\">here</a> and <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A1diz#:~:text=The%20city%20can%20boast%20of,across%20the%20Bay%20of%20C%C3%A1diz.\">here</a>.</p> Rio de Janeiro, Brazil <p><a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Rio-de-Janeiro-Brazil\">Rio de Janeiro</a> is widely recognized as one of the world’s most beautiful and interesting urban centres. Although Rio de Janeiro continues to be the preeminent icon of Brazil in the eyes of many in the world, in reality its location, architecture, inhabitants, and lifestyle make it highly unique when compared with other Brazilian cities. Rio de Janeiro is well known for the beauty of its beaches and of its peaks, ridges, and hills - all partly covered by tropical forests. Perhaps at no time is the city’s festive reputation better displayed than during the annual pre-Lenten Carnival, which enlivens the city night and day with music, singing, parties, balls, and street parades of brilliantly costumed dancers performing to samba rhythms. Rio’s inhabitants (called Cariocas, after the Tupi Indian word meaning “white man’s home”) represent a microcosm of Brazil’s ethnic diversity and include people of European, African, and mixed ancestry. The city is also an important economic centre, with activities ranging from industry and national and international trade to administration, banking, education, culture, and research. It is one of the premier tourist destinations in the world. The city’s vibrant culture and many museums, historical sites, and physical features - especially the beaches - attract large crowds of visitors, as do events and festivals such as the annual Carnival and New Year’s Eve celebrations.</p> Honolulu, Hawaii <p>Honolulu, meaning \"sheltered harbor\" in Hawaiian, is the most remote major city in the world, with the closest location on the mainland United States being 3,787 km away. As Hawaii is a chain of volcanic islands, with Honolulu located on the island Oahu, volcanic features are prominent in the city, with the volcanic field of the <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honolulu_Volcanics\">Honolulu Volcanics</a> partially located inside the city. These volcanoes formed through explosive eruptions and gave rise to cinder cones, lava flows, tuff cones and volcanic islands. Among these are well known landmarks, such as the Diamond Head, the Koko Head or the Punchbowl Crater. Punchbowl, a 600-metre wide crater 2 km inland, contains the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific with some 24,000 graves of World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War. The city acts as a natural gateway to the islands' large tourism industry, which brings millions of visitors and contributes $10 billion annually to the local economy. Other important aspects of the city's economy include military defense, research and development, and manufacturing. Learn more <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honolulu\">here</a> and <a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Honolulu\">here</a>.</p> Delhi, India <p><a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Delhi\">Delhi</a>, the capital city of India, actually consists of two components: the historic Old Delhi in the north, and New Delhi in the south, which became the capital if India in 1947. Delhi is a city of great historical significance as an important commercial, transport, and cultural hub, as well as the political centre of India. It has been the centre of succession of mighty empires and powerful kingdoms. The animal life of Delhi, like its plant life, is quite diverse. Among carnivorous animals are leopards, hyenas, foxes, wolves, and jackals, which inhabit the ravine lands and hilly ridges. Monkeys are found in the city, especially around some of the temples and historical ruins. Birdlife is profuse; year-round species include pigeons, sparrows, kites, parrots, partridges, bush quail, and, on the ridges, peafowl. In the demographic history of Delhi, a turning point was the year 1947, when thousands of Hindu and Sikh refugees from predominantly Muslim Pakistan entered the city in the wake of India’s independence. Since that time the population has grown steadily, with an ongoing heavy flow of immigrants, most arriving from other Indian states or from adjacent countries. The religious composition of Delhi’s population is diverse. The great majority of the residents are Hindu, adherents of Islam constitute form the largest minority, followed by smaller numbers of Sikhs, Jains, Christians, and Buddhists. The service sector is the most important part of Delhi’s economy, and it is the city’s largest employer. The city struggles with challenges brought by overcrowding, such as sub-standard housing, air pollution and traffic congestion.</p> Marshalling Yard Maschen in Hamburg, Germany <p>With more than 100 separate siding tracks and an area of 2.8 square km, the freight train classification yard of Maschen is the largest of its kind in Europe. Located South of Hamburg, the station serves as a hub for international freight transport all over Europe. <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maschen_Marshalling_Yard\">Learn more</a>.</p> ";
texts["Vegetation_and_Forestry"] = "Forestry in Indonesia, 2018 (Barren soil) <p>The rain forest in Indonesia, home to over 3,000 animal species (such as the Sumatran tiger or pygmy elephants), is one of Earth’s most biodiverse places. Until the 1960s, about 80 percent of the country was covered with forest. Due to deforestation, this number decreased to less than 50 percent today. The main drivers of the deforestation are illegal logging for palm oil and pulp plantations and/or the timber industry. Together with natural wildfires this led to a big loss in forest area and forest biodiversity, which is causing problems not only for the indigenous people but also contributing to global warming as rainforests store huge amounts of carbon. Read more <a href=\"https://www.ran.org/indonesian-rainforests/\">here</a>.</p> Forestry in Central African Republic (False color 11,8,2) <p>The forests of Central Africa constitute the second largest rain forest complex in the world after the Amazon. These forests have always been a source of varied resources, services and primary materials for their populations, providing timber, wood energy, bushmeat, fish and other foods, medicinal plants and other diverse wood and non-wood products. Annual deforestation in ten Central African countries was of the order of 0.4 percent between 1990 and 2000. In Central African Republic alone, 30,000 hectares of forest are lost to deforestation each year. Deforestation and degradation of forest resources result from shifting cultivation and uncontrolled exploitation to satisfy the needs of both the local populations and the market for primary materials. Traditional slash-and-burn shifting agriculture and harvesting for fuelwood are by far the main causes of forest loss. Efforts to ensure the regeneration and conservation of these resources are ineffective in the context of poor governance and persistent poverty. Learn <a href=\"http://www.fao.org/3/y5841e/y5841e08.htm\">more</a>.</p> Forestry in the Amazon rainforest <p>The Amazon is the world's biggest rainforest, larger than the next two largest rainforests — in the Congo Basin and Indonesia — combined. As of 2020, the Amazon has 526 million hectares of primary forest. One in ten known species on Earth live here. There is a clear link between the health of the Amazon and the health of the planet. The rain forests, which contain 90 – 140 billion metric tons of carbon, help stabilize local and global climate. Deforestation may release significant amounts of this carbon, which could have catastrophic consequences around the world. Despite its global importance, more than 1.4 million hectares of forest have been cleared since the 1970s due to deforestation and even larger area has been affected by selective logging and forest fires. Conversion for cattle grazing and industrial agricultural production (especially soy farms) are the primary drivers of forest loss. Additionally, climate change induced higher temperatures in the tropical Atlantic reduce rainfall, causing drought and increasing the susceptibility of the rainforest to fire. Computer models suggest that if current rates of warming continue, much of the Amazon could transition from rainforest to savanna, especially in the southern parts of the region. Read more <a href=\"https://rainforests.mongabay.com/amazon/\">here</a> and <a href=\"https://www.worldwildlife.org/places/amazon\">here</a>.</p> Sundarbans, Mangrove forest (EVI) <p><a href=\"https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/mangroves.html\">Mangrove forests</a> have exceptionally high biodiversity and are indispensable in erosion reduction. There are 80 different species of mangrove trees known, growing in low-oxygen soil, where slow moving waters accumulate fine sediments for the roots to grow in. The <a href=\"https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/798/\">Sundarbans Mangrove forest</a> covers 140,000 ha of land, making it one of the largest Mangrove forests in the world. It provides livelihood to many people in the area and is a home to, among others, 250 bird species and the endangered Royal Bengal Tiger. The forest is threatened by seasonal monsoons, cyclones and tidal waves, which cause salinization.</p> Russian Taiga (EVI) <p><a href=\"https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/taiga/\">Taiga</a>, coniferous forest of the subarctic region, covers vast landscapes of Alaska, Canada, Scandinavia and Siberia. The Russian Taiga stretches 5,800 kilometers (3,600 miles) from the Pacific Ocean to the Ural Mountains and was completely covered with glaciers during the last ice age. The soil of Taiga forests often contains <a href=\"https://www.nrdc.org/stories/permafrost-everything-you-need-know\">permafrost</a>, which means the ground has been frozen for years and often up to thousands of years. Plants of the Taiga are accustomed to harsh cold temperatures; the trees contain very little sap (nutrient distributing fluid), which helps them to prevent freezing, while their dark needles absorb as much sun light as possible. In Taiga forests, one can find many animal species, such as owls, moos, deer, lynx, rodents and the Siberian tiger. The Taiga is vulnerable to global warming, as higher temperatures cause the permafrost to thaw, making the area spongy and hard for tree roots to grow. Permafrost thawing also causes <a href=\"https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2018/08/news-arctic-permafrost-may-thaw-faster-than-expected/\">methane</a>, a potent greenhouse gas, to be released into the atmosphere, speeding up climate change.</p> Serengetti National Park (right) (Barren Soil) <p><a href=\"https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/156/\">Serengeti National Park</a> in Tanzania spans over 1,500 square kilometers of Savanna and is a place of largest annual animal migrations in the world. The ecosystem supports 2 million wildebeests, 900,000 Thomson’s gazelles and 300,000 zebras as the dominant herds. Other herbivores include 7,000 elands, 27,000 topis, 18,000 hartebeests, 70,000 buffalos, 4,000 giraffes, 15,000 warthogs, 3,000 waterbucks, 2,700 elephants, 500 hippopotamuses, 200 black rhinoceroses, 10 species of antelope and 10 species of primates. Major predators include 4,000 lions, 1,000 leopards, 225 cheetahs, 3,500 spotted hyenas and 300 wild dogs. The park is under strict protection, but is still endangered by poaching, wildfires, tourism and droughts.</p> ";
texts["Volcanoes"] = "Kilauea (False Color Urban) <p>Kilauea is the world's most active volcanic mass, with its caldera over 10 square km large, and 150 meters deep. Kilauea's eruptions are usually non-explosive, as is typical for shield volcanoes. Its lava flows are usually slow, making it possible for people living in the area to evacuate and avoid them. However, in 1790, a steam explosion killed part of an army marching near the caldera. One of the most destructive eruptions happened in 1955, when lava was pouring out of the caldera for 88 consecutive days, destroying valuable sugar cane fields. An eruption in 1975 was followed by a destructive tsunami. In 2018, the east rift zone of Kilauea erupted, after an earthquake hit the neighbouring district Puna. Lava flows reached the sea, burning roads and buildings on its way, forcing many people to evacuate. Due to emitting methane gas, the fire in some areas burned blue. Read more <a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Kilauea\">here</a> and <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_lower_Puna_eruption\">here</a>.</p> Etna (IR Highlights) <p><a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Mount-Etna\">Mount Etna</a> on the Italian island of Sicily is the highest active volcano in Europe. At the moment it reaches a height of 3320 meters (changes due to depositions from eruptions and collapses of the crater) and covers an impressive area of 1600 square km. Its lower slopes host vineyards, olive groves, and orchards. Surrounding the foot of the volcano several smaller and bigger settlements can be found. Mount Etna is currently and through the centuries very active only in the last five years having had four strombolian eruptions.</p> Nyiragongo (False Color Urban) <p>Nyiragongo is considered to be the most dangerous volcano in the world. The reason is the consistency of its lava, which is untypically fluid, enabling it to flow up to 100 km per hour. For comparison, due to its high density lava typically moves with speeds from 1 up to 10 km per hour. Nyiragongo is a stratovolcano, which means its eruptions can be explosive. However, the volcano is dangerous even when the explosive eruption isn't happening at all, as the walls of the 600 meter deep crater keeping the lava in, can rupture at any moment. This happened on January 10, 1977, and the consequences were devastating. Within 30 minutes, the entire 3-5 million cubic meter lava lake was drained, travelling at 100 meters per hour and wiping out several villages on its way. It reached the nearest town Goma in 20 minutes. Unfortunatelly the volcano is not researched well, and it is not clear why the crater ruptured. Due to this, it is impossible to predict such events in the future, making Nyiragongo extremely dangerous. <a href=\"http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/most-dangerous-volcano-world-tale-nyiragongo\">Learn more.</a></p> Yasur Volcano, Vanatu (IR Highlights) <p>Yasur Volcano (361 m) is located on Tanna, which is one of the southernmost islands of the Pacific state of Vanuatu. The volcano has been persistently active for hundreds of years. Eruptions have been largely strombolian and sometimes vulcanian since proper documentation began. Small lava lakes may also sometimes be visible in vents. Due to the type of activity and popularity as a tourist attraction the volcano can be considered as the southern hemisphere equivalent of the volcano Stromboli. Volcanism in the area is caused by the subduction of the Indo-Australian plate under the Pacific plate. Yasur is known to be a major contributor to volcanic global sulphur dioxide emissions, with 7.9 kg/s being measured during 2004 – 2005. This amounted to about 2% of global volcanic emissions of this gas. The surroundings of Yasur are unusual in a way that an extensive largely unvegetated ash plain is found to its northeast, whilst the other flanks of the volcano are vegetated with dense forest. Ashfall usually merely represents a nuisance for the local population. Vegetation may be affected by volcanic gases in downwind areas, as is particularly evident from the location of the ash plain. Acidic rainfall and mist appears to be particularly problematic. Learn more <a href=\"http://www.photovolcanica.com/VolcanoInfo/Yasur/Yasur.html\">here</a>.</p> Pacaya (IR Highlights) <p>Pacaya Volcano (2560 m) is located 30 km south of Guatemala City center. From 1965 – 1975 and since 1990, Pacaya has almost permanently been in eruption, displaying primarily strombolian activity together with the extrusion of lava flows. Occasionally, larger explosive eruptions have been witnessed. The activity of Pacaya in the last couple of thousand years has been strongly episodic, involving emplacement of thick deposits of basaltic lava over periods of under 300 years in length followed by inactive phases lasting from 300 – 500 years. Whilst activity at Pacaya usually has limited impact on the surrounding communities, it has been known to cause damages and a serious collapse could have catastrophic consequences. As the size of the MacKenney cone increases, eruptions from the cone are less and less constrained by the walls of the collapse depression, which prevents lava flows extending beyond its perimeter. This increases the risk of hot avalanches, pyroclastic flows and lava flows to the communities. Luckily, larger eruptions are often preceeded by increases in seismic activity so the surrounding communities can be warned. Since the security situation around Pacaya has improved and the volcano has been included in a National Park structure, tourism has significantly increased. Learn more <a href=\"http://www.photovolcanica.com/VolcanoInfo/Pacaya/Pacaya.html\">here</a>.</p> Stromboli, Province of Messina, Italy (IR Highlights) <p><a href=\"https://www.volcanodiscovery.com/stromboli.html\">Stromboli</a> has been active consistently for at least 2000 years, which is unusual among volcanoes. Most of its activity consists of brief and smaller bursts of lava 100-200 meters high into the air. Occasionally, longer periods of eruptions occur, lasting from a few years up to 10 years. The most recent one began in December 2002 and ended in July 2003. Although Stromboli's eruptions are not dangerous most of the time, more violent eruptions that take lives and destroy property, do occur. In <a href=\"https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-48857422\">July 2019</a>, a hiker died during an eruption, several people were injured and many had to flee to the sea. The deadliest <a href=\"http://www.geo.mtu.edu/volcanoes/boris/mirror/mirrored_html/STROMBOLI-1930.html\">eruption so far in 1930</a> took 6 lives and caused considerable damage.</p> Erta Ale, Ethiopia (False Color Urban) <p>Erta Ale volcano is a large basaltic shield volcano in the Erta Ale volcanic range in the central northern Danakil depression (NE Ethiopia). It is famed for its persistent lava lake which has been active during most of the past decades since it was first discovered in the 1960s. Erta Ale is only 613 m high, but as typical for a shield volcano has a very gentle slopes and a large 40 km diameter base. The summit is truncated by a complex, elongated 1700 x 600 m wide caldera which contains vast lava flows and several larger and smaller pit craters, most notably the active north and south crater, which contains the lava lake at present. Erta Ale is one of the main attractions of the Danakil, and had became a popular tour destination in recent years. Unfortunately, the deadly attack on 4 January 2012 against tourists and scientists illustrates that the area is politically unstable and can be subject to terrorist attacks. Learn more <a href=\"https://www.volcanodiscovery.com/erta_ale.html\">here</a> and <a href=\"http://www.photovolcanica.com/VolcanoInfo/Erta%20Ale/Erta%20Ale.html\">here</a>.</p> Jebel Marra, Sudan (not active) <p>You're looking at the dormant Jebel Marra volcano in the Sudan. The most prominent feature of this mountain is the volcanic caldera, called Deriba Caldera. In its heart lie two volcanic lakes, formed some 3500 years ago, as the eruptions removed rock material and created a crater. The lakes are supplied by rain and hot springs.</p> ";
texts["Wildfires"] = "Wildfires in Croatia, July 2017 (Pierre Markuse script) <p>In summer of 2017, <a href=\"https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/world/croatia-fights-dozens-of-fires-along-adriatic-coast-9144906\">dozens of wildfires erupted</a> along the Adriatic coast. Soaring heat wave temperatures accompanied by a lack of rainfall led to a drought, which resulted in dry, hot forest floor, extremely vulnerable to wildfires. The cause of many wildfires were careless people, while strong winds made the situation worse by enabling fires to spread much faster. The firefighters struggled to contain the fires and keep them from dwellings. Altogether, an astonishing 83.000 hectares of forest burned down.</p> Wildfires in Australia, January 2019 (Pierre Markuse script) <p>The 2019 – 2020 Australian bushfire season, which stretched from June 2019 to March 2020, devastated portions of the country, scorching an estimated 186,155 square km (46 million acres), destroying more than 5,900 buildings (including 2,779 homes), and killing at least 34 people. <a href=\"https://www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-53549936\">Nearly 3 billion animals</a> were killed or displaced. Wildfires occur every summer in Australia (typically peaking in February), but the scale of the 2020 seasonal fires was unprecedented. A severe drought, which led into the hottest and driest year on record, combined with sustained high temperatures and windy conditions, created an exceedingly dangerous fire situation across many areas of the country. Hard-hit areas included New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, and South Australia. Over the past 20 years, the average percentage of Australia’s forests burned each year was 1 percent. During the 2019 – 2020 fire season, that figure was 21 percent. Climate change models predicted such severity of wildfires to become a reality no later than the next century. Learn more <a href=\"https://www.directrelief.org/2020/06/six-months-after-australias-wildfires-recovery-continues/\">here</a>, <a href=\"https://www.wired.com/story/the-terrible-consequences-of-australias-uber-bushfires/\">here</a> and <a href=\"https://www.wired.com/story/the-terrible-consequences-of-australias-uber-bushfires/\">here</a>.</p> Wildfires in California, August 2018 (Atmospheric Penetration) <p>In November 2018, the Camp Fire in Butte County and the Woolsey Fire near Los Angeles ignited a wildfire, that killed at least 90 people, burned more than 250,000 acres, destroyed more than 20,000 structures and generated unhealthy air conditions in communities hundreds of miles away. As California looks into even hotter, drier climate and the possibility of even more destructive fire seasons in the future, the wildfire prompted serious considerations on how to lower the impact of such events. There are some unique weather conditions that are driving the exceptionally swift California fires, like strong winds and high temperatures. What followed again during the summer was a period of intense, dry heat throughout the state, with a heat wave shattering temperature records in several cities. Long-term trends linked to global warming also exacerbated 2020’s fire season across the United States. The warming draws moisture out of plants, creating drier conditions earlier in the season. It also causes an earlier snowmelt in the spring, leading to more arid conditions in summer. Surprisingly, it is estimated that 84 percent of wildfires are ignited by humans, whether through downed power lines, careless campfires, or arson. Additionally, the state’s population is growing, leading to a significant overlap between the areas of high fire risk and areas with a growing population density. The study estimated that by 2050, 645,000 houses in California will be built in “very high” wildfire severity zones. Living with the fire prone conditions, some additional measures can be taken to lower the impact of such events in the future. Read more <a href=\"https://news.stanford.edu/2018/11/28/reflections-california-wildfires/\">here</a> and <a href=\"https://www.vox.com/2018/8/7/17661096/california-wildfires-2018-camp-woolsey-climate-change\">here.</a></p> Before wildfire, Funchal (Pierre Markuse script) <p>Following weeks of dry weather and temperatures above 35°C, forest fires took hold in the Portuguese mainland on Friday and on the island of Madeira, on Monday. On Tuesday the flames encroached on Funchal, home to some 112,000 permanent residents and capital of an island that attracts more than a million tourists per year. The fires started on August 8, 2016. In the following days, the fires spread rapidly and the amount of smoke increased dramatically. By August 12, the fires were mostly extinguished, but they left large expanses of charred forest behind. The fire near Funchal killed 3 people, destroyed more than 150 homes, and forced more than 1,000 people to evacuate. Fires were also blazing on the mainland with reports of a fourth death in central Portugal. A heat wave helped fuel the fires, but authorities think that some may have been set by arsonists with several arrests made. The government triggered the EU Civil Protection Mechanism, which enabled other European states to help. Read more <a href=\"https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/88590/fires-char-madeira\">here</a> and <a href=\"https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-37030217\">here</a>.</p> ";
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