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+# Composing Techniques
+
+Real quantum hardware suffers from multiple, simultaneous sources of noise — gate errors, readout
+errors, time-correlated noise, coherent over-rotations, and more. No single error mitigation
+technique addresses all of these at once. Mitiq makes it straightforward to **compose** (stack)
+multiple techniques so each one targets the noise it handles best.
+
+This page explains:
+
+- which techniques can be composed and how their interfaces interact,
+- when composing can backfire,
+- a noise × technique compatibility reference.
+
+For worked examples of specific combinations, see the tutorials linked throughout this page and
+in the {doc}`../examples/examples` page.
+
+---
+
+## Technique interfaces
+
+Most Mitiq techniques expose a `mitigate_executor` helper. It accepts a raw executor (a callable
+`circuit → QuantumResult`) and returns a new executor that applies that technique automatically.
+Because the output is itself an executor, it can be passed into another technique's
+`mitigate_executor`, creating a chain.
+
+The key question when composing is: **what does each technique's executor need as input, and
+what does it return?**
+
+| Technique | `mitigate_executor`? | Executor input | Returns |
+|-----------|:--------------------:|----------------|---------|
+| ZNE, LRE, DDD, PEC, CDR, QSE | yes | `Circuit` | `float` |
+| REM | yes | `Circuit` | `MeasurementResult` (bitstrings) |
+| PT | no | `Circuit` | `float` (after manual `np.mean`) |
+| VD | no | Multi-copy `Circuit` | `list[float]` |
+| PEA | no | `Circuit` + noise model | `float` |
+| Shadows | no | `Circuit` | `float` (via classical post-processing) |
+
+Most techniques treat the quantum computer as a black box that returns a single expectation
+value — a `float`. They operate at that level, running the circuit one or more times and
+producing a mitigated number.
+
+**REM** is the exception. Rather than working on expectation values, REM operates on the full
+probability distribution. The data flow when REM is composed with another technique looks like
+this:
+
+1. **Backend** executes the circuit and returns a `MeasurementResult` (raw bitstrings / counts)
+2. **REM** (innermost) converts counts → probability vector → applies inverse confusion matrix → returns corrected `MeasurementResult`
+3. **Observable** converts corrected counts → `float` expectation value
+4. **Outer technique** (e.g. any `mitigate_executor`-based technique) takes that `float` → returns mitigated `float`
+
+This is why REM must always be the innermost technique when combined with others — it needs
+to run before any expectation value is computed. See {doc}`rem-5-theory` for the full details.
+
+**PT** has no `mitigate_executor` for composability reasons. PT is designed to be used as a
+circuit modifier inside another technique's loop — twirling each noise-scaled circuit
+individually before execution. Wrapping it in its own executor would make that nesting
+impossible. See {doc}`../examples/pt_zne` for how the manual loop works in practice.
+
+**VD, PEA, and Shadows** have no `mitigate_executor` because their execution patterns don't
+fit the simple `executor → executor` wrapper model. VD requires a specially constructed
+multi-copy circuit; PEA requires an explicit noise model and probabilistic sampling across
+scale factors; Shadows uses a two-step classical post-processing API. Each is accessed via
+its own `execute_with_*` or dedicated functions.
+
+---
+
+## Composing two techniques
+
+When chaining two techniques via `mitigate_executor`, the inner technique wraps the raw
+executor and the outer technique wraps the result:
+
+```python
+inner_executor = technique_A.mitigate_executor(raw_executor, ...)
+outer_executor = technique_B.mitigate_executor(inner_executor, ...)
+result = outer_executor(circuit)
+```
+
+The output type of the inner technique must be compatible with what the outer technique expects.
+Since REM returns `MeasurementResult` and all other techniques return `float`, REM must always
+be inner. Every other combination of techniques that both use `mitigate_executor` is
+straightforward to chain.
+
+---
+
+## When composing can backfire
+
+Stacking techniques is not always better. More techniques means more circuit executions, deeper
+circuits, and more opportunities for things to interact badly.
+
+**Applying ZNE or LRE to coherent noise without PT first.** ZNE and LRE work by amplifying
+noise and extrapolating back to zero — an assumption that only holds for incoherent, Markovian
+noise that scales predictably. For coherent noise, gate folding amplifies errors unfavourably
+and results can be worse than doing nothing. The {doc}`../examples/pt_zne` tutorial documents
+this directly. Applying PT first converts coherent noise to stochastic noise, making
+extrapolation reliable.
+
+**DDD applied to Markovian noise.** DDD is designed for time-correlated, non-Markovian noise.
+For purely Markovian noise, the {doc}`ddd-5-theory` page notes it can make the channel more
+symmetric but cannot decouple the system from the environment. Additionally, gate-level DDD is
+an approximation of the ideal pulse-level technique — some backends reschedule gates internally
+in ways that undermine the sequences. As the theory page states, for some sequences the final
+error can actually increase.
+
+**PT with too few twirled variants.** PT works by averaging over many random circuit variants
+to cancel coherent noise. With too few variants, the averaging is incomplete. In edge cases,
+PT can transform the noise into a fully depolarizing channel, which means a total loss of
+quantum information.
+
+**Execution overhead.** Every technique adds circuit executions. ZNE needs circuits at multiple
+noise scale factors. PT needs many twirled variants. DDD runs multiple trials. On a real device
+with a limited shot budget, stacking too many techniques can hurt statistics more than the
+mitigation helps. See {doc}`resource-requirements` for how to measure overhead. The advanced
+pipeline tutorial notes this directly: the full pipeline does not always perform best.
+
+**ZNE error amplification.** Any statistical uncertainty in intermediate results propagates to
+the ZNE extrapolation step and can be amplified. If earlier techniques introduce bias or
+variance, ZNE extrapolates over that too.
+
+The short version: composing works best when your device has clearly distinct noise sources
+that map to different techniques. If you are not sure what noise dominates, start with one
+technique, characterize the improvement, and add a second only if there is a clear remaining
+gap.
+
+---
+
+## Technique × noise model compatibility
+
+The table below shows which techniques address which noise types. **✅** means the technique
+directly addresses that noise type, **partial** means it has an indirect or limited benefit,
+and **❌** means it is not designed for it.
+
+| Noise type | ZNE | LRE | REM | DDD | PT | PEC | CDR | QSE | VD | PEA | Shadows |
+|---|:---:|:---:|:---:|:---:|:---:|:---:|:---:|:---:|:---:|:---:|:---:|
+| Incoherent gate noise (depolarizing, amplitude damping) | ✅ | ✅ | ❌ | partial | partial | ✅ | ✅ | ✅ | ✅ | ✅ | ✅ |
+| Coherent gate noise (over-rotations) | partial | partial | ❌ | ❌ | ✅ | ✅ | ✅ | ✅ | partial | ✅ | partial |
+| Time-correlated (non-Markovian) noise | partial | partial | ❌ | ✅ | partial | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | partial | ❌ |
+| Readout / measurement errors | ❌ | ❌ | ✅ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ |
+| Crosstalk (idle-qubit errors) | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ✅ | partial | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ | ❌ |
+
+Use this table to identify complementary techniques — ones that each address a different column.
+Stacking techniques that target the same noise type adds overhead without meaningful benefit.
+
+For worked examples of specific combinations, see:
+- {doc}`../examples/combine_rem_zne` — REM + ZNE
+- {doc}`../examples/combine_ddd_zne` — DDD + ZNE
+- {doc}`../examples/pt_zne` — PT + ZNE
+- {doc}`../examples/advanced_error_mitigation_pipeline` — PT + DDD + REM + ZNE
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/docs/source/guide/core-concepts.md b/docs/source/guide/core-concepts.md
index be62e48ed..d27aa7d46 100644
--- a/docs/source/guide/core-concepts.md
+++ b/docs/source/guide/core-concepts.md
@@ -10,4 +10,5 @@ observables.md
 calibrators.md
 benchmarking-circuits.md
 resource-requirements.md
+composing-techniques.md
 ```